The Khoton Mongols are a small ethnic group primarily settled in Tarialan sum, Uvs aimag, south of Uvs Nuur Lake and close by the Khyargas Nuur lake (Kyrgyz Nur). A significant number of Khotons also reside in neighboring sums, such as Naranbulag (Naran-Bulak on Soviet maps) and in Ulaangom, the administrative center of Uvs aimag.
Currently, more than 10,000 Khotons live in Mongolia, mostly in Tarialan sum, Uvs aimag, in the northwestern part of the country, south of Uvs Nuur and Khyzyl Nuur lakes. The word Tarialan translates as “arable land” or “farmland.”
In the areas where Khotons settled—on the alluvial cone of the Kharkhira River (Kyrg. Karkyra)—irrigation systems were established 300 years ago. This set them apart from the surrounding nomadic livestock-raising population.
These distinctions persist to this day, which is why the region of their compact settlement was given its name.
According to the oral traditions of the Khotons and other historical sources, there are multiple theories about their origins. However, the most credible explanation—based on Khoton oral history and scholarly research—is that during the reign of the Mongol-Oirat prince Galdan Boshogt Khan (300 years ago), they became subjects of the Dzungar state.
At that time, Galdan Boshogt conquered the cities of East Turkestan and Uyghuristan and resettled agricultural peoples in various regions. According to legend, he relocated a group of Khotons to what is now Ulaangom, Uvs aimag, to cultivate the land.
He built artificial irrigation canals in the area, which continue to function today, and the Khotons have remained engaged in agriculture and crop farming ever since.
According to the 1928 and 1930 population censuses, the number of registered Khotons had significantly increased. As a result, during an administrative reform, a special sum called Altan Teeliin was created for them, which was renamed Tarialan sum in 1933.
The first researchers to study the Khotons were Russian scholars—the geologist and ethnographer G. N. Potanin and the academician B. Ya. Vladimirtsov—who visited the region in the 1910s.
Potanin traveled through Khoton-inhabited areas, studying their lifestyle and language, while Vladimirtsov conducted a more in-depth analysis of the Khoton language. He also recorded their legends and epics as recounted by the Khotons themselves.
Research by Vladimirtsov made it clear that the Khotons have a Turkic origin. He identified more than 100 words of Turkic origin in their language. The Khotons themselves also stated that they had a different origin from the Derbets.
Vladimirtsov also established that, from an anthropological perspective, the Khotons closely resemble the peoples of Eastern Turkestan. Even their agricultural practices retain characteristics typical of Eastern Turkestan.
Vladimirtsov, Potanin, as well as travelers and researchers P. K. Kozlov and B. B. Baradiin, attributed the Khotons’ origin primarily to the Kara-Kyrgyz (modern Kyrgyz) element and emphasized the dominant role of the Kyrgyz in the ethnogenesis of the Khotons.
A similar view was held by one of the leading Russian Turkologists of the first half of the 20th century, Academician A. N. Samoylovich, who also conducted studies on the Khoton people.
Regarding this, he wrote:
“Judging by the beliefs of the Khotons alone, it is reasonable to assume that their composition includes Kara-Kyrgyz, Eastern Turkestani Sarts, and possibly Kazakh-Kyrgyz.”
Based on linguistic analysis, Samoylovich favored the Kara-Kyrgyz (Kyrgyz) element in the origins of the Khotons. As supporting evidence, he referred to a legend recorded by G. N. Potanin about the origin of the Khoton clan Sarybash—which can be compared to the Kyrgyz tribe Sarybagysh—from forty maidens.
According to Samoylovich, this legend undoubtedly has a Kara-Kyrgyz origin. Many contemporary scholars share this view.
Today, the Mongolian Khotons are fully assimilated—their language and customs have become Mongolian.
Genetic Evidence: The Kyrgyz Connection
The Khotons exhibit an extremely high frequency of the Y-chromosomal haplogroup R1a1—83%—which is the result of genetic drift, explained by a bottleneck effect. This suggests that the Khoton population descended from a small group of founding ancestors who migrated to northwestern Mongolia in the 17th century. It is likely that this population underwent multiple bottleneck events.
DNA studies by Mongolian researchers Ts. Tserendash and J. Batsuuri confirmed that 45–50% of the Khoton gene pool originates from the Kyrgyz, with the next significant genetic contribution coming from the Uyghurs and Uzbeks, while Kazakh influence is minimal.
Indeed, among modern Turkic peoples, the Kyrgyz have one of the highest frequencies of haplogroup R1a1—63%.
The Khotons are anthropologically distinct from the surrounding local population (and from all Mongols). Despite the prevalence of mixed marriages, they have retained facial features characteristic of the Pamir type.
The Khotons live among the Derbets (one of the Oirat tribes) and naturally maintain various friendly interactions with them.
There are also mixed marriages between them. Khoton men marry Derbet and Khoshut women—both representatives of Oirat tribes. In the past, the Khotons spoke their own Turkic language, known as the Khoton language.
Today, however, the Khotons have completely switched to a dialect of the Kalmyk (Oirat) language, specifically the variant spoken by the Derbets—the dominant ethnic group in Uvs aimag. Some sources note that Khoton speech has preserved more original Oirat features than the dialects of the Derbets and Bayads, which have been significantly influenced by the Khalkha Mongols.
Historically, all Khotons were Muslims. However, after centuries of living in a region where the surrounding population practiced Buddhism combined with elements of shamanism, the Khotons gradually lost most Islamic rituals. They adopted many customs from the local people that were incompatible with Islamic teachings.
Nevertheless, the Khotons have retained a memory of both their Turkic and Muslim origins. Some Islamic elements remain in their ceremonial practices, including fragments of Islamic prayers (preserved only in the Khoton language). Additionally, the tradition of circumcision for boys continues. In recent years, efforts have been made to revive Islamic traditions.
The Khoton settlement serves as a kind of Islamic enclave within the Oirat region of Mongolia. However, it has also absorbed many Oirat traditions, including both Buddhist and pre-Buddhist beliefs.
From a spiritual perspective, the Khoton settlement can be considered an important center of the Oirat world in Western Mongolia.
The cremation site of the great Oirat leader, Prince Galdan Boshogtu Khan, is located in the Khoton-inhabited area.
As mentioned earlier, the Khotons have preserved the purity of the Oirat language better than other Oirat ethnic groups.
They have also maintained the traditions of ancient Western Mongolian dances.
Historical records suggest that during the Oirat war against the Chinese, Prince Galdan Boshogtu Khan utilized the Khotons in his military campaigns.
One day, Galdan dressed the Khotons in Russian military uniforms and positioned them at the front of his army. He then told the Chinese envoys that the Russian army had come to aid the Oirats. Seeing the Khotons, who had Europoid features, the envoys believed him.
Mentions of the Khotons can be found in the research of Russian scholars such as Grum-Grzhimailo, Potanin, and Maisky, as well as in the works of the Kalmyk scholar Ts. D. Nominhanov. Some information about them is also available in the studies of modern Mongolian researchers.
This unique people, who have integrated various religious traditions while preserving their distinct identity, deserve to have their history documented and thoroughly studied.
A. Samoylovich – Potanin’s Notes on the Khotons
“In the comprehensive works on Turkic tribes by Radlov, Vambéry, and Aristov, there is mention of a small people called the ‘Khotons,’ who were cast by fate into Western Mongolia.
At that time, the only source of information about this people was the work of G. N. Potanin, who observed the Khotons during his travels in 1876–1877, that is, 40 years ago.
Today, our knowledge of the Khotons has been supplemented by the research of B. Ya. Vladimirtsov. Unfortunately, neither Potanin nor Vladimirtsov provided illustrations of representatives of this people.
According to Potanin (p. 15), the Khoton population was estimated at ‘up to 100 households.’ Radlov and later Aristov gave a figure of 400 yurts. Vladimirtsov was unable to gather precise data on this matter; he estimated their number to be between 300 and 400 yurts.
Radlov and Vambéry repeated Potanin’s report that the Khotons referred to themselves as ‘Musurman’ (Radlov, p. 222: Bussurman), while the Mongols called them Khotons. Vladimirtsov, however, never heard the first designation; during his time, the Khotons referred to themselves simply as Khotons.
Potanin considered it likely that the Khoton people originated from ‘various war captives gathered during the wars waged by the Dzungars in Turkestan; the memory of Osh and Bukhara indicates that the ancestors of the Khotons also came from these cities. Judging by the presence of the Burkut bone among the Khotons, there were also captured Buruts, or wild mountain Kyrgyz, among them’ (p. 17).
Radlov described the Khotons as follows (in German): ‘They are the serfs of the Derbet prince, war captives from Central Asia, who were undoubtedly brought here only in the past [18th] century’ (pp. 221–222).
Aristov, like Radlov, briefly stated their origins: ‘They are the descendants of settled Turkic captives from Eastern, and possibly partly Western, Turkestan, taken by the Kalmyks’ (p. 349).
Vambéry believed that ‘judging by certain linguistic forms, we are dealing here, in any case, with former Uzbeks or Sarts.’
The linguistic data on the Khotons recorded by Potanin is so incomplete that it must be used with extreme caution when making judgments about their origins.
By the time of Vladimirtsov’s travels, the Khotons had so thoroughly forgotten their native language that his records contained almost no coherent texts or grammatical forms—only isolated words, which had already been heavily influenced by Mongolic phonetics.
The data from Potanin and Vladimirtsov regarding the beliefs of the Khotons indicate that this people was formed from Turkic tribes for whom Islam was only a superficial layer over much older shamanistic beliefs.
Potanin writes:
“My acquaintance, Khojagul, knew only a few Muslim prayers, and even those were probably in a distorted form; he knew the Quran only by name, and the name of the Prophet Muhammad was almost unknown to him.”
Radlov provides a similar description of the Kara-Kyrgyz (in German):
*“The Kara-Kyrgyz are all Muslims (Bussurman), like the Kazakh-Kyrgyz, but they likely adopted Islam much later than the latter.
The Tatars claim that the Kara-Kyrgyz are complete pagans who know neither fasting nor prayers nor religious prescriptions, and even the name of the Prophet is unknown to them” (Aus Sibirien, I, 532).*
Even today, the Kazakh-Kyrgyz are not particularly devout Muslims, and in the 18th century, as is well known, they only nominally practiced Islam.
Among the sedentary Turks of Eastern Turkestan, according to N. F. Natanov, shamanistic prayers similar to those of the shamanistic Turks of Siberia continued to coexist with Muslim beliefs even in the 19th century.
Other Turkic-speaking groups related to the Khotons, such as the Altai Turks and the Soyots of the Uryankhai region, are no longer Muslims.
Thus, based on the beliefs of the Khotons alone, it is reasonable to assume that their composition included Kara-Kyrgyz, Eastern Turkestani Sarts, and possibly Kazakh-Kyrgyz.
Linguistic data (lexical, morphological, and phonetic), despite being incomplete, in combination with religious data, provide some grounds for recognizing Eastern Turkestani Turks (Sarts)—descendants of the ancient Uyghurs, who today identify themselves by place of residence or occupation (Taranjin)—and the Kara-Kyrgyz as playing a predominant role in the formation of the Khoton people.
Potanin’s records do not contain phonetic features characteristic specifically of Siberian Turkic dialects. It is possible that the words I have identified only with those of Siberian Turks are also found among the Kara-Kyrgyz or Eastern Turkestani Turks but were simply not included in Radlov’s dictionary.
The presence of a significant Kara-Kyrgyz element in the Khoton language aligns well with the fact that Khoton folklore contains an undoubtedly Kara-Kyrgyz legend about the origin of the Sarybash clan from forty maidens (Essays, II, 162). It is regrettable that Potanin did not record the Khoton version of this legend (see notes to Chapter V, Ah 66, p. 46).
As far as I know, Potanin’s records of the Khoton language were used only by Vambéry, who, in the cited section of his book Das Türkenvolk, included an excerpt from the first prayer without translation.
Potanin recorded the following:
•Three short prayers (p. 17)
•Children’s names for fingers (p. 121)
•”Finger incantation” (p. 123)
•Names of constellations and celestial phenomena (pp. 124, 127)
•A list of local plant names (pp. 130–135)
•A list of local animal and bird names (pp. 139–145)
I attempted to analyze Potanin’s Khoton records, and I present the deciphered texts and words in Arabic transcription (following Central Asian orthography) to avoid the unresolved question of how the Khotons actually pronounced them 40 years ago. As is well known, Potanin lacked linguistic training.
I translated into Russian two of the three prayers (LTAya 2–3) and the “finger incantation,” which is absent from Essays. The first prayer, however, does not lend itself to translation. In the prayers, meter and rhyme are occasionally noticeable.
In the chapter on the Khotons (pp. 15–18), Potanin, in addition to prayers, mentions several Khoton words and personal names. The Khotons referred to Mongols (according to Vladimirtsov, specifically the Oirats) as “Khalmik.”
One particularly interesting name is that of the legendary ancestor of the Khotons, which, as Vladimirtsov proves, is also known among the Mongols:
“Kunkyar,” which is difficult not to associate with the Ottoman sultan’s title Künkar (Hünkâr). The etymology of this name deserves a separate study.
Among the names of the seven Khoton clans (p. 16), the name Adzhu-Khurmyan appears, which may trace back to Ayy-Kurman in Kara-Kyrgyz pronunciation.
Other recognizable names include:
Erke-bek, Pirmyat, Khojagul, Toga, Mendybay, and Tyumur.”
DNA Science Data 🧬
Joo-Yup Lee and Shuntu Kuang, University of Toronto, Canada - “Haplogroup R1a1, more specifically, its subclade R1a1a1b2 (defined by mutation Z93), is the genetic marker of the Indo-European pastoralists, who migrated from modern-day Ukraine to modern-day Iran, India, the Kazakh steppes, the Tarim Basin, the Altai Mountains region, the Yenisei River region, and western Mongolia during the Bronze Age.
Naturally, R1a1, more specifically, its subclade R1a1a1b2 (R1a-Z93), occurs at high frequency among the Turkic peoples now residing in the Yenisei River and the Altai Mountains regions in Russia.
Compared to the Tuvinians, the Khakass (whose name was created by the Soviets from Xiajiasi (黠戛斯), a Chinese name for Kyrgyz, since they were regarded as descending from the Kyrgyz have noticeably higher percentages of R1a1 (35.2%) and much lower percentages of haplogroups C (1.1%) and Q (4%). However, N is also the most prevalent haplogroup (50%) of the Khakass (Gubina et al. 2013: 339; Shi et al. 2013)
As for the Altaians, the Altai-Kizhi (southern Altaians) are characterised by a high percentage of R1a1 (50%) and low to moderate percentages of C2 (20%), Q (16.7%) and N (4.2%) (Dulik et al. 2012: 234).
The major differences between the Khakass and the southern Altaians are the lower frequency of haplogroup N (in another study, haplogroup N is found at high frequency (32%) among the Altaians in general: see Gubina et al. 2013: 329, 339) and the higher frequencies of haplogroups C2 and Q among the latter.
The descent of the Kyrgyz (Kyrgyz) of the Tien Shan Mountains region (Kyrgyzstan) from the Yenisei Kyrgyz is debated among historians.
However, among the modern Turkic peoples, the former have the highest percentage of R1a1 (over 60%). Since the West Eurasian physiognomy of the Yenisei Kyrgyz recorded in the Xin Tangshu was in all likelihood a reflection of their Eurasian Indo-European marker R1a1a1b2 (R1a-Z93), one may conjecture that the Tien Shan Kyrgyz received their R1a1 marker from the Yenisei Kyrgyz. That is, the former are descended from the latter.
The other Y-chromosome haplogroups found among the Kyrgyz (Kyrgyz) are C2 (12~20%), O (0~15%) and N (0~4.5%).50 The lack of haplogroup Q among the Qirghiz (Kyrgyz) mostly distinguishes them from the Altaians.
During the Bronze Age and early Iron Age, the Yenisei River region was inhabited by Indo-Europeans. The dna study of 26 ancient human specimens from the Krasnoyarsk area dated from the middle of the second millennium bc to the fourth century ad shows that the Yenisei pastoralists mostly belonged to haplogroup R1a1 (Keyser et al. 2009: 401)
The high frequency of R1a1 among the modern-day Kyrgyz and Altaians may thus prove that they are descended from the Yenisei Kyrgyz. In addition, this may explain the reason why medieval Chinese histories depict the Kyrgyz as possessing West Eurasian physiognomy.
The Y-chromosomes of the Kök Türks have not been studied. After the collapse of the Second Türk Khaganate in 745 ce, the Kök Türks became dispersed and it is difficult to identify their modern descendants.
If they were indeed descended from the Eastern Scythians aka Saka (Suo) or related to the Kyrgyz, as the Zhoushu states (Zhoushu 50.908), the Ashina (royal Türkic dynasty, possibly related to the Turko-Jewish Khazar Khaganate, according to Peter B. Golden of Rutgers University) may have belonged to the R1a1 lineage.” - Joo-Yup Lee and Shuntu Kuang, University of Toronto, Canada, “A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and Y-DNA Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples’
Wen, Shao-qing - “Kyrgyz are an admixed population between the East and the West. Different patterns have been observed in the patrilineal gene pool of the Kyrgyz. Historically, ancient Kyrgyz were considered to be the Yenisei Kyrgyz that may perhaps be concerned with the Tashtyk culture.
Extremely low Y-diversity and the presence of a high-frequency 68.9% Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a1-M17 (a diagnostic Indo-Iranian marker are striking features of Kyrgyz populations in central Asia.
It is believed that this lineage is associated with Indo-Europeans who migrated to the Altai region during the Bronze Age and mixed with various Turkic groups.
Among the Asian R1a1a1b2-Z93 lineages, R1a1a1b2a2-Z2125 is quite common in Kyrgyzstan (68%) and Afghan Pashtuns (40%), and less frequent in other Afghan ethnic groups and some Caucasus and Iran populations (10%). Notably, the basal lineage R1a1a1b2-Z93* is commonly distributed in the South Siberian Altai region of Russia.
According to the published ancient DNA data, we found that, in Middle Bronze Age, Haplogroup R1a1a1b2a2a- Z2125 was mainly found in Sintashta culture population from Kamennyi Ambar 5 cemetery, western Siberia, in Fedorovo type of the Andronovo culture or Karasuk culture population from Minusinsk Basin, southern Siberia, and in Andronovo culture populations from Maitan, Ak-Moustafa, Aktogai, Kazakh Mys, Satan, Oy-Dzhaylau III, Karagash 2, Dali, and Zevakinskiy stone fence, Kazakhstan.” - Wen, Shao-qing; Du, Pan-xin; Sun, Chang; Cui, Wei; Xu, Yi-ran; Meng, Hai-liang; Shi, Mei-sen; Zhu, Bo-feng; Li, Hui (March 2022), "Dual origins of the Northwest Chinese Kyrgyz: the admixture of Bronze age Siberian and Medieval Niru'un Mongolian Y chromosomes", Nature
Lee, Joo-Yup - “The modern-day descendants of the Yenisei Kyrgyz, the Kyrgyz people, have one of the highest frequencies of haplogroup R1a-Z93. This lineage believed to be associated with Indo-Iranians who migrated to the Altai region in the Bronze Age, and is carried by various Türkic groups.
The Zhoushu [the book of the Zhou Dynasty] (Linghu Defen 2003, Chapter 50, p. 908) informs us that the Ashina, the royal clan of the Kök Türks, were related to the Kyrgyz.
If so, the Ashina may have belonged to the R1a1 lineage like the modern-day Tienshan Kyrgyz, who are characterised by the high frequency of R1a1 (over 65%).
Haplogroup R1a1, more specifically, its sub- clade R1a1a1b2 defined by mutation Z93, was carried by the Indo-European pastoralists, who reached the Kazakh steppes, the Tarim Basin, the Altai Mountains region, the Yenisei River region, and western Mongolia from the Black Sea steppes during the Bronze Age (Semino et al. 2000, p. 1156, Lee, Joo-Yup (2018) - Lee, Joo-Yup (2018). "Some remarks on the Turkicisation of the Mongols in post-Mongol Central Asia and the Kipchak Steppe ''. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 71 (2): 121–124. doi:10.1556/062.2018.71.2.1. ISSN 0001-6446. S2CID 133847698.
Zaxylyk Sabitov - “Until the 9th century, the Kyrgyz lived along the Yenisei River in the Minusinsk Basin. In the 9th century, the Yenisei Kyrgyz migrated to the Altai and Irtysh regions.
From 1326 to 1329, some Altai Kyrgyz moved to Semirechye and the territory of modern Kyrgyzstan.” He also published DNA sample data from the Sintashta culture, which he claims “is related to the Altai and modern Kyrgyz, while the Arban-1 samples from the Karasuk culture are ancestral to modern Kyrgyz. Genetic data from Arzhan complex (8th century BCE) also show parental genes of the Kyrgyz.”
"It is known that the structure of Arzhan has similarities with the Sintashta-Andronovo kurgans (M.P. Gryaznov). It is known that Saka tribes lived in the territory of Kyrgyzstan, and later the Wusun tribe arrived from the east.
The high percentage of R1a1 among the Kyrgyz appeared through three routes: from the Saka tribes, from the Wusun Sakas, and from the Dingling tribes. There is also a theory about the migration of part of the Yenisei Kyrgyz to the territory of modern Kyrgyzstan.” - Zhaxylyk Sabitov, “Historical-Genetic Approach in the Study of the Ethnogenesis and Material Culture of the Ancient Kyrgyz” - International Journal of Experimental Education
Igor Rozhanski, Tsukuba, Japan - “The land of Modern Kyrgyzstan, populated at the turn of the eras by the Saka and Wusun tribes, was overrun by the Yenisei Kyrgyzes (Khakasses) in the 8th c. AD.
"Since Kyrgyzstan is a natural mountain fortress of the Tian Shan mountains, it is an island similar to the Lithuanian Tatars, with high genetic inertia and limited influences. Essentially, all four are Scythians, the Saka Scythians, Wusun Scythians, Yenisei Kyrgyz Scythians, and the Lithuanian Tatar Scythians.” - Igor Rozhanski, Tsukuba, Japan, “The Lithuanian Tatars: DNA Ancestry Traced To The Eurasian Steppes”, Academy of DNA-Genealogy
Volkov V.G., Kharkov V.N., Stepanov V.A. - “The Southern Altaians and the Tian Shan Kyrgyz are descendants of close relatives of the Yenisei Andronovans, most likely the descendants of the Altai Andronovans.
It is well known that linguists and ethnographers have long established a close linguistic and ethnic kinship between the Kyrgyz and the Southern Altaians.
Some historians believe that the Kyrgyz and the Southern Altaians once belonged to a single community and that the migration of the Kyrgyz from the Altai to the Tian Shan occurred relatively recently (Abramzon, 1959: 34; Abdumanapov, 2007: 95, 114).
It is also highly probable that the spread of Indo-Iranian languages in this region is linked specifically to the R-L342.2 subclade.
At the same time, there is virtually no doubt that representatives of this subclade formed the core of the Indo-Aryans who ‘invaded’ India approximately 3,500 years ago.
The haplotypes of the carriers of the Andronovo and Tagar cultures show the greatest similarity with the haplotypes of the Southern Altaians and the Tian Shan Kyrgyz.
Preliminary results indicate the following: while the distribution range of the SNP marker L342.2 is significant, it remains confined within Asia.
In Europe, this SNP marker is practically absent, except among populations of clear Asian origin, such as Ashkenazi Jews, as well as Lithuanian and Volga Tatars.
This SNP marker is more frequently found among the following population groups: Arabs (primarily those living on the border with Iraq), Turks, Pakistanis, North and South Indians, Afghans, Southern Altaians, Tian Shan Kyrgyz, and Bashkirs.
According to most researchers specializing in Aryan studies, the semi-nomadic pastoralist tribes of the Srubnaya and Andronovo cultural-historical communities represent the Indo-Iranian group of the Indo-European language family.
These tribes are possibly the legendary Aryans who, in the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE, entered ancient Iran, crossed the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan, and invaded the Indus Valley.
The modal 15-marker haplotype of one of the Southern Altaian groups within haplogroup R1a1a, as presented in O.A. Balaganskaya’s study (Balaganskaya, 2011: 22), fully coincides with the modal haplotype of the most numerous R1a1a cluster among the Tian Shan Kyrgyz.”
Zhaxylyk Sabitov - "Arzhan burial mound—the oldest known Scythian burial site, located in the Republic of Tuva, Russia—are particularly noteworthy. According to Kazakh DNA researcher Zhaxylyk Sabitov, the kurgan is the resting place of ancestors of nearly half of the Kyrgyz people, who are carriers of the haplogroup R1a-Z93.
The burial sites in the Minusinsk Basin, from which the Kyrgyz Khaganate later emerged, include a man closely related to 45% of modern Kyrgyz. This lineage belongs to the R1a Kyrgyz subclade Z2125.
The royal burials in the Arzhan Valley and Arzhan-2 (near Tuva, close to the Minusinsk Basin) also contain ancestors of the Kyrgyz. Tribes such as Adygine, Tagay, Saruu, Sarybagysh, Bugu, and Solto have close relatives buried there.
The analysis of BAM files was conducted by Vladimir Tagankin. Below, we outline the clearly established facts:
1. Sample RISE386: Originating from the Bulanovo-Sintashta culture settlement (Southern Ural), this sample is dated to 2298–2045 BCE. It belongs to the subclade Z2121/S3410+, Z2124+, YP1460+. YP1460 is identified as a marker of the Kyrgyz branch. This sample is genetically related to approximately 40% of modern Kyrgyz. This group also includes a significant portion of Southern Altaians, a small number of Kazakhs, and Polish-Lithuanian Tatars.
2. Sample RISE495:Found in the Arban 1 settlement of the Karasuk culture (Khakassia), this sample belongs to the subclade R-S23592 (Z2124+, Z2125+, Z2122-, Z2123-) and is identified as positive for YP349. This subclade is ancestral to the Kyrgyz branch. Close genetic relatives of this sample include approximately 40% of Kyrgyz, particularly those from specific subdivisions of On Kanat and Sol Kanat.
3. 2017 Study on Ancient DNA:A 2017 publication presented genetic data on ancient DNA (Y-chromosome and autosomal markers).
Among the samples, S441 was identified from the Arzhan settlement (Tuva), dating to the 7th–6th centuries BCE. This sample exhibited two positive mutations: YP1456+ and S23592+, both of which are ancestral mutations for the Kyrgyz branch.
Scythians of Arzhan-2: The remains from Arzhan-2 exhibit a blend of Caucasoid and Mongoloid morphological traits. This reflects the historical intermingling of populations in the region.”
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