Kyrgyz-Wusuns: Ancestors of the Russians in Chinese Chronicles - N.V. Kűner

N. V. Kyuner – “The excerpt presented in this section, ‘Study on the Wusun Tribe,’ is taken from Chapter 30, Volume IV of the well-known work by He Qiu-tao, "Shofanbeicheng" (written in 1851 but only published in 1881).

It offers a comprehensive view of how the connection between the ancient Usun people and the later Russian people was understood in Chinese literature from the Mongol era through the 19th century.

This topic has received almost no attention in Russian or foreign scholarship, although certain statements by Chinese authors on the matter have been known.

At the very least, the well-informed scholar of early Central Asian history, G. E. Grumm-Grzhimailo, in his bibliographically rich work "Western Mongolia and the Uryankhai Region", Vol. II, mentions that later Chinese scholars derive the Russians from the Usun only in passing (p. 5, note 2), citing Parker’s book China: Her History, Diplomacy, and Commerce from the Earliest Times to the Present Day.

He Qiu-tao’s study immediately captures our attention, regardless of how convincing the arguments supporting this view may be. What’s important is that it expresses a unique Chinese scholarly perspective on the Russians—as being originally linked to Asia and, therefore, long-standing neighbors of China (dating back to well before the start of the Common Era).

Overall, the chapter from "Shofanbeicheng" provides, thanks to the many citations from various Chinese authors, a broader body of material than the individual excerpts found in I. Bicurin’s translations. Therefore, it is presented here in full, in an almost literal translation, together with the introduction and afterword by the Chinese author himself.

(See: Shofanbeicheng, Vol. IV, Ch. 30, in the eight-volume compact edition of small format edited by Wu Shoukun, pp. 1a–7b; and in his six-volume edition, pp. 1a–16b.)”

Study on the Usun Tribe – Preface by He Qiu-tao

“Researchers into the origins of the Russian state are not of one mind. Some believe that the Russians are descendants of the ancient Gaoche (Tiele/Dingling), since their nomadic customs are similar to those of the northern peoples.”

(Supplement by KAF):

The Gaogui (Dingling) (Chin. 高車, ‘High Carts’), also known as Gaoju (高句) or Tiele (鐵勒), were an ancient nomadic people of Central Asia who played a significant role in the history of the steppe empires. They are considered ancestors of peoples such as the Uyghurs, Kyrgyz, and other groups.

Gaoche and the Kyrgyz:

There is a hypothesis that the Yenisei Kyrgyz (ancestors of the modern Kyrgyz) may have been part of the ethnic confederation of the Gaogui/Tiele. Chinese sources describe the Kyrgyz as red-haired and light-eyed warriors, which has also been associated with the partial Europoid (Caucasoid) appearance of some Gaogui groups.

Others believe [the Russians] are the ancient Dashi (Arabs), since their trading customs are similar to those of the Western Regions. However, both opinions are inaccurate.

The view of Wu Zhao-qian and Yan Bing—that the Russians are in fact the ancient Usun tribe—was first proposed by Yuan-era authors Wang Hui and Yu Tang-jia.

Some have doubted this due to the great distance between the Usun and the Russians. But now, taking into account the similarity in appearance and studying the phonetic transitions in the names of their states, we find that the Olos (Russians) are indeed descendants of the Usun.

All authors’ arguments have always been based on evidence…

In Han times, the Usun served as intermediaries between the Xiongnu and the Western Regions; they possessed the customs of both the nomads of the northern lands and the merchants of the Western Regions. In our time, the Olos (russians) serve as intermediaries between Mongolia and Europe, and likewise embody both the customs of northern nomads and those of Western merchants.

The Usun were originally a nomadic state; following water and grass, they moved their encampments without a fixed location. This is similar to how, in the early Han period, the Great Yuezhi were initially located between [the Qilian Mountains] and Dunhuang, but after being defeated by the Xiongnu, they migrated west, submitted to the Daxia state, and set up their base on the Gui River.

In the Yuan era, [the Khitan ruler] Yelü Dashi led his people westward, then took control of the lands of the Western Regions and founded a state that lasted for 100 years (this was the Kara-Khitan Khanate).

All of these are clear examples of how nomadic states have continually risen and fallen. The old Usun state was also originally located between Qilian and Dunhuang. In ancient times, the people now known as Olos referred to themselves as laoqiang (Old Qiang, i.e., Tibetans). The place between Dunhuang and Qilian was precisely the area where the Western Qiang gathered. From there, they migrated and reached Chigu (Issyk-Kul) (discussed further below).

From there, they moved to the Onion Mountains (Congling or the Pamirs). All these migrations of the Usun are recorded in the dynastic histories. After that time, there was no more mention of the Usun in the Congling area, but the Olos (Russians) appeared in the west of Mount Ula (Ula-lin, or the Ural Mountains). Since the Ural Range is a northwestern extension of Congling, the Russians are in fact migrants of the Usun tribe. This can be precisely demonstrated.

In recent times, the Torghuts migrated from the Yar region far to the Ezilihe (Volga River). The old encampments of the Torghuts lie 5,000–6,000 li east of the Volga; the capital of the Olos (Russians), Mosukeva (Moscow), is only a little over 2,000 li from the Volga.

If we believe that the Torghuts could migrate such a distance, why not believe that the Usun could do the same? Is this not logical? If we read old documents about places like the city of Talos, the Yaosha River, and others of this sort, we will find that they were named after states.

These locations serve as clear evidence of the westward migration of the Usun. This study of the Usun tribe is presented in order to resolve all doubts.”

“Alosi is also written as Olosi — this refers to the Locha (the Russians). [They live] beyond the Palisade (referring to the ‘Willow Palisade,’ which marked the border of southern Manchuria). They (the Russians) are called laoqiang; they are people with blue sunken eyes, prominent noses, yellow (reddish) curly beards, and tall bodies; they are strong but fond of sleep and, when asleep, do not wake easily.

They are skilled in infantry combat and adept with firearms; they do not fear bows and arrows. If struck by an arrow, they calmly pull it out, look at each other, and laugh.

They themselves say that from the creation of the world to the dingmao year of the reign of Emperor Kangxi (1687), a total of 7,914 years have passed. Among this people, the young and lowly, upon seeing someone honorable and elder, remove their hats and bow their heads.

First, they point to the left and right shoulders, then to the left and right knees. Others say they first point to the forehead, then the abdomen, then the right shoulder, then the left shoulder — this is the so-called reverse cross sign used in European countries.

They greatly revere the Buddha: upon seeing [his image], they invariably prostrate and weep. Others say: this is not Buddha, but a revered Heavenly Lord. Their prostration and tears are a sign of their belief in the Heavenly Lord (Christianity).

Their houses are square. The top, bottom, and all four sides are made of boards. Their tools are refined, resembling those of Europe. Their hats have a blue crown, lined inside with sable fur, the outside decorated with pearls and coral, or made of bear (literally: xingxing, i.e., orangutan) felt, trimmed with sable.

Their clothing has a square collar and short sleeves. The coats are long and hang down. Commoners wear sheepskin coats; the nobility wear sable and various kinds of brocade on the outside of their garments, with pearls, coral, and diamonds sewn on the edges — a very few use satin.

Their coins are silver, without rims or holes [unlike Chinese coins], large as a gourd, and typically weigh one fen. On the reverse is depicted crossed spears (halberds) or a man on horseback.

On the obverse is an inscription in the script of their country, resembling Sanskrit books. A single coin has several dozen characters, making it impossible to decipher. For writing, they use the Latin language. The Latin language is the official language of all European countries.

Their paper is thick, similar to Shanxi miaotou paper. Its size is smaller by 3/10, somewhat brittle, with a dark pattern (watermark) in the center resembling a halberd, and is white in color.

Their cabbage resembles lettuce, but is shorter; the leaves are like tai grass (sedge). When rolled into a head, it is white; when unrolled, it is green. Their fish has a strong odor; if eaten, the taste is bland.

They (the Russians) eat many empty (possibly yeasted?) breads, similar to the present-day European loaves, but much whiter in color, soft, and remain so for an entire month without going hard.

Their capital lies directly west of the shore of the Northern High Sea, in the center of the eight (regions). If one travels from there by land and water day and night, it takes several months to arrive at the city of Yakesa (Albazin). As for determining their western border today, I estimate it lies seven days’ journey northwest of Jinshan (the Golden Mountains, i.e., the Altai).”

The author of “Chusaijiliao” believes that the Jianggun (Gyan-Gun or Kyrgyz) are the same as the Tang-era Xiajiya (Khakass), who are also called Heji Si.

(Kūner’s commentary:

“Aristov, in Notes on the Ethnic Composition of Turkic Tribes and Peoples and in An Attempt to Clarify the Ethnic Composition of the Kyrgyz, without touching upon this aspect of the question, nonetheless recognizes the Kyrgyz as direct descendants of the Usun, who came to the western Tien Shan from central Mongolia a century and a half before the Common Era.

This is supported in He Qiu-tao’s study, particularly where he refers to the Buruts, i.e., the Kyrgyz, and thus even this alone shows the scholarly value of his work. However, the Usun’s settlements undoubtedly covered a much broader area: from the Tien Shan they moved into the Pamirs, and later advanced even further west.

The Qiu-tao sees this as evidence that they reached the European part of what would later become Russian territory and became the ancestors of the Russians there.

It is undeniable that the Chinese author convincingly traces the westward migration of the Usun and, as a result, the possibility that this people blended into the populations of various regions of present-day Central Asia and Kazakhstan, and possibly even Central and Western Siberia.”)

Wang Qiu-jian, in "Yutangjiahua", claims that the ancient Usun are in fact today’s Olos (Russians). I have matched their sounds completely. The sounds lie somewhere between ‘u’ and ‘o,’ and between ‘sun’ and ‘si,’ and there are no appropriate Chinese characters to transcribe them precisely. Translators, unable to find names close in sound, settled for intermediate renderings.

Among early translators, the pronunciation changed, and they mistakenly conveyed an incorrect name. Later, this discrepancy in pronunciation became unknown to scholars. In reality, this state [Usun] has existed for 2,000 years, like a single day.

When I recently read the collected writings of Wang Qiu and Yu Tang-jia about the Usun, I considered them incorrect. But later, after traveling beyond the [Great] Wall and seeing the people of that country [Russia], I saw that their appearance entirely matched the description of the Usun, as portrayed in the commentaries of Yanshi. This made me begin to doubt again.”

Now, upon reading the words of Wang Qiu-jian, I was initially confused. Regarding the geographical position of the country and distances by road, I had not yet had time to investigate.

In the "Han Shu", in the Biography of Zhang Qian, it is written: "The prince of the Usun was called Gunmo. Gunmo’s father, Nandoumi, had originally lived with the Greater Yuezhi between the Qilian Mountains and Dunhuang. This was a small domain. The Greater Yuezhi attacked and killed Nandoumi and took his land. The people fled to the Xiongnu.

Gunmo was a newborn. His guardian, Fubu-jiuju-hou, fled with him, laid him in the grass, and went to look for food. When he returned, he saw a she-wolf nursing the baby, while a raven, holding meat in its beak, flew around him. He considered the child to be blessed by spirits, and brought him to the Xiongnu.

The Shanyu (ruler of the Xiongnu) loved and raised the child. When he grew up and matured, the Shanyu gave Gunmo the people of his father, appointing him commander of troops. Gunmo repeatedly achieved military success.

At this time, the Yuezhi, having been defeated by the Xiongnu, moved west and dealt a blow to the ruler of the Sai (Sai or Saiye—Scythians). The Sai ruler fled south and migrated far away, while the Yuezhi settled on his land. When Gunmo became strong, he asked the Shanyu for permission to avenge his father’s death. He then went west and defeated the Greater Yuezhi.”

“In the "Usun Zhuan" it is stated that the Great Gunmi (ruler) of the Usun state ruled from the city of Chigu. It was located 8,900 li from Chang’an (the capital). The population numbered 120,000 households. There were 630,000 people (family members or dependents), and a standing army of 188,800 troops.

The ranks included: Minister Dalu; Left and Right Great Commanders — 2; Hou (marquises) — 3; Da-Shuai (Great General) and Duyu (Governor), one each; Dajian (Grand Architect/General) — 2; Dali (High Judge) — 1; Shezhong Dali (Central Court Judge) — 2; Qijun (Marshal of the Cavalry) — 1.

To the east of Usun, it was 1,721 li to the governor’s administration. To the west, it was 5,000 li to the territories under the control (‘within the fence’) of Kangju. The land was grassy and flat, with abundant rains and cold weather. The mountains had many pine trees of two kinds — sun (common pine) and min (a type of pine).

The Usun did not cultivate fields; they planted trees. They moved with their livestock, seeking water and grass. Their customs were the same as the Xiongnu. The country had many horses; wealthy people owned 4,000–5,000 head.

The people were persistent in vice and greed, highly unreliable, and prone to plunder and robbery. It was a very powerful state. In ancient times, they were vassals of the Xiongnu, but later grew strong and numerous. They had tens of thousands of archers, trained for offensive warfare. They sought to dominate their vassals and refused to attend Xiongnu assemblies.

To the east, the Usun interacted with the Xiongnu. To the west, they had relations with Dayuan (Fergana). To the south, they bordered on Chinese client states — literally ‘cities and suburban territories’ (chengguo zhuguo).

Originally, this was the land of the Se (or Sai, likely referring to the Scythians or Massagetae).

The Greater Yuezhi defeated the Se king in the west and drove him south across the Hanging Pass (a mountain pass). The Greater Yuezhi settled on his land. Later, the Usun Gunmo attacked and defeated the Greater Yuezhi.

The Yuezhi migrated further west, conquered Daxia (Bactria), and the Usun Gunmo settled in the land previously held by the Yuezhi and the Se king. Therefore, the Usun people had a mixture of Se and Greater Yuezhi elements.

At first, Zhang Qian said: “The Usun originally lived together with the Greater Yuezhi between Dunhuang and (omitted: Qilian)” (see above). Though now the Usun are strong and great, it is possible, through generous rewards, to invite them to live on their old lands and marry their king to a Chinese princess, becoming brothers, to contain the Xiongnu.

This is stated in Zhang Qian’s Biography. After Emperor Wu Di came to the throne, he ordered Zhang Qian to load up with gold and goods and set out. Gunmo received Zhang Qian with the ceremony used for the Shanyu (ruler of the Xiongnu).

Zhang Qian, feeling very ashamed, said to him: “The Son of Heaven has sent gifts. If the king does not bow, then return the gifts.” Gunmo rose and bowed. The rest followed the old customs. Gunmo originally had more than ten sons. His middle son, Dalu, was strong in character and capable of leadership. He commanded an army of more than 10,000 horsemen and lived apart. His elder brother was heir and had a son named Cencou.

The heir died young. Before dying, he told Gunmo: “Be sure to make Cencou the heir.”

Out of pity, Gunmo agreed. Dalu became angry, gathered his brothers and military leaders, and plotted to attack Cencou. Gunmo gave Cencou over 10,000 cavalry and ordered him to live separately. Gunmo himself also had over 10,000 cavalry for his own protection.”

The state was divided into three parts. Supreme power belonged to Gunmo. When [Zhang] Qian presented the gifts, he announced the following imperial edict to Gunmo: “If the Usun can relocate eastward to their former lands, then the Han court will send a princess to marry the ruler of the Usun, to establish a bond of brotherhood, so that together we may resist the Xiongnu. For it is not enough to defeat them militarily.”

At that time, the Usun, being distant from Han [China], were still unaware of its greatness. Furthermore, being close to the Xiongnu, they had long since submitted to them. The nobles of the Usun all refused to relocate. Gunmo was already old, and the state had become divided. He could no longer govern according to his own will. So, he sent an envoy to accompany [Zhang] Qian on his return.

With the embassy, he presented several dozen horses as a token of gratitude. The envoy saw the multitude of people and the wealth in China, and upon returning to the Usun state, reported what he had seen. After this, the Usun began to show greater respect for China.

The Xiongnu Shanyu learned that the Usun were making overtures to China and grew angry, wishing to attack them. Meanwhile, new envoys from China continued to arrive in Usun territory. Departing from the Usun, they headed south and reached Dayuan and the Yuezhi. They came one after another, without interruption.

As a result, the Usun Gunmo grew apprehensive and sent an envoy to China with tribute horses, expressing his desire to marry a Chinese princess and establish fraternal ties. The Son of Heaven (Emperor) consulted his ministers, and they agreed. They said: “First, betrothal gifts must be presented, and only afterward should the princess be sent.”

The Usun agreed to provide 1,000 horses as bride-price.

In the middle of the Yuanfeng reign (110–105 BCE), the Han court sent Lady Xijun, daughter of Jiangdu King Jian, as a princess in marriage. She was granted a carriage, fine clothing, imperial items, and was accompanied by an official entourage of eunuchs, attendants, and coachmen totaling several hundred people.

She was lavishly gifted upon her departure. The Usun Gunmo made her his right (junior) wife. The ruler of the Xiongnu also sent a girl in marriage to Gunmo, whom he made his left (senior) wife. When the princess arrived in that land, she established her own court and new living quarters. Seasonally—once or twice a year—she would see Gunmo and host a banquet, bestowing gifts of money and silk to the king, his inner circle, and noblemen.

Gunmo was old and did not understand the [Chinese] language. The princess, in grief and sorrow, composed a poem:

“My family married me off to a land of the sky,

Far away they gave me to a foreign lord.

The Usun prince built his dwelling in a tall felt yurt, with felt used for the walls.

Meat was his food, and kumis (fermented mare’s milk) his seasoning.

I am always thinking of my homeland—my heart bleeds within me.

I wish I could become a yellow stork (huang hu or gu) and return to my native land."

When the Son of Heaven (the emperor) heard of this, he pitied her. A year later, he sent emissaries with tents, brocade, and embroidered goods as gifts for her.

Gunmo, being old, wanted to have his grandson, Cencou, marry the princess. The princess disobeyed and submitted a written complaint. The emperor replied: “Follow the customs of that land. I wish to unite with the Usun to destroy the Hu (the Xiongnu).”

Cencou then married the princess.

After Gunmo died, Cencou succeeded him on the throne. As for the name “Cencou,” it was actually an official title. His real name was Jü Xümi. “Gunmo” was the sovereign’s title; his personal name was Liejiaomi. Later texts recorded this as “Gunmi.”

Cencou, by his Han (Chinese) wife—the princess from Jiangdu—had one daughter, Shofu. After the princess died, the Han court appointed a granddaughter of the Prince of Chu, named Jiye, as the new princess, and she married Cencou.

Cencou’s son by his Hu (Xiongnu) wife, Nimi, was still young. When Cencou was dying, he entrusted the state to the son of Dalu—his paternal uncle—named Wen Guimi. He said:

“When Nimi grows up, return the state (the throne) to him.”

When Wen Guimi ascended the throne, he took the title Fei Wang (“Flying King”). He also married the Chu princess Jiye and had with her three sons and two daughters.

The eldest son was named Yuan Guimi. The second was called Wannian (“Ten Thousand Years”) and became the Prince of Shache. The third son was named Dale and became the Left Great Commander. The elder daughter, Dishi, became the wife of Prince Jiangbin of Guici. The younger daughter, Suguan, became the wife of the hou (marquis) Ruo Hulin.

During the reign of Emperor Zhao Di (86–74 BCE), the princess submitted a letter saying:

“The Xiongnu have sent cavalry to hunt in Cheshi. Cheshi and the Xiongnu are now united and are jointly attacking the Usun. Only the Son of Heaven, by fortune, can save us Usun.”

China prepared troops and horses, planning to defeat the Xiongnu.

After Emperor Xuan Di ascended the throne, the princess and Gunmi sent an envoy together to submit a memorial to the emperor. The memorial reported that the Xiongnu had repeatedly sent large armies to capture and crush the Usun and seize the lands of Cheyang and Eshi.

The Xiongnu, gathering their people, sent an envoy to say that the ruler of the Usun should quickly come to them, bringing the princess with him. The enemy intended to separate the Usun from China. Gunmi dispatched half of the state’s elite troops. He himself supplied men and horses for a force of 50,000 cavalry.

With full strength, they launched an attack on the Xiongnu. The Son of Heaven mobilized the Chinese armies to rescue the princess and Gunmi. A large Chinese force was deployed: 150,000 cavalry, five generals marching on different routes simultaneously.

This is recounted in the Xiongnu Zhuan (“Account of the Xiongnu”). Xiao Wei Chang Hui was sent as envoy with the imperial baton to oversee the Usun army. Gunmi, personally leading the linhou (commanders) and those of lower rank, with 50,000 cavalry, advanced along the western route, entered Xiongnu territory, and reached the camp of the Right Prince Luli.

The Usun captured the Xiongnu’s Fuxing (or Fuhan), the daughter-in-law of Juici, named Wanlihan, a duwei (colonel), a qianzhang (commander of 1,000), and a qijiang (cavalry officer and below). In total, they beheaded or captured 40,000 enemies, and seized over 700,000 head of horses, oxen, sheep, donkeys, and camels. Having taken prisoners and all this loot, they returned home.

The Han court conferred upon [Chang] Hui the title Zhang Luo Hou (Marquis of Zhangluo). This occurred in the 3rd year of the Ben Shi era (71 BCE). The Han court then sent Chang Hui with gold and silks to reward the meritorious Usun nobles.

In the 2nd year of the Yuan Kang era (64 BCE), the Usun Gunmi submitted a report via Chang Hui, expressing the desire to name as heir his grandson through a Chinese mother—Yuan Guimi. He requested permission to marry another Han princess, to strengthen ties through marriage.

The Usun, having broken with the Xiongnu, offered as betrothal gifts 1,000 horses and mules from each division of their people. Gunmi and his officials were instructed to discuss the matter. The Da Honglu (Grand Minister of Ceremonies), Xiao Wangzhi, argued that since the Usun had crossed borders and rebelled before, it would be difficult to trust them, and the proposal should not be accepted.

The Emperor, however, praised the recent great achievements of the Usun ruler and said that it would be a serious matter to break the established relationship. Envoys were therefore sent to Usun to first receive the betrothal gifts.

Gunmi, his crown prince, the Left Great Commander, and the duwei all sent envoys—a total of over 300 persons—to go to China to receive the younger princess. The Emperor selected as princess Xiangfu, the daughter of the younger brother of the former Usun princess Jiye.

An official entourage of over 100 attendants (shi-yu) was appointed for her. They were settled in Shanglin to study the Usun language. The Son of Heaven (Emperor) personally came to Pingle Pass to meet the Xiongnu envoy and rulers and leaders of foreign states. After the presentation of the da jiao di (grand wrestling matches), music was performed and the guests were sent off.

The Emperor then dispatched Zhang Luo Hou, Guanglu Dafu Chang Hui, along with four officials bearing imperial scepters (bunchuk), to escort the younger princess. They all arrived in Dunhuang. But before crossing beyond the Great Wall, they heard that the Usun Gunmi Wen Guimi had died.

The Usun nobles, in accordance with the prior agreement, collectively appointed Cencou’s son, Nimi, to be Gunmi under the name of Kuan Wang. Chang Hui submitted a memorial proposing that the younger princess be left in Dunhuang.

Chang Hui himself hastily traveled to Usun to express disapproval that Yuan Guimi had not been appointed Gunmi. He then returned to receive the younger princess. The matter was referred to the guans and qins (officials and ministers) for deliberation. [Xiao] Wangzhi again argued that the Usun had acted with duplicity, and that it was now difficult to proceed with the marriage alliance.

The previous princess had been in Usun for many years. The favor and love shown by the Chinese emperor had not reconciled them to us. The borderlands still had not found peace. This proves the matter is finished.

Since Yuan Guimi had not ascended the throne, the younger princess should return. Foreigners cannot be trusted. This is a blessing for the Middle Kingdom. Even though the younger princess would not remain among the Usun, her status would still rise, as her service originated in China.

The Son of Heaven agreed and summoned the younger princess to return. Kuan Wang then remarried the Chu princess Jiye (“Soothes Sorrow”), and she bore him a son named Chimi. [Kuan Wang] did not treat the princess well; moreover, being cruel and immoral, he lost the trust of the people. The Han court appointed Wei Simi Wei He-i and Fuhou Ren Chang to serve her son at court.

The princess said that Kuan Wang was the source of unrest and grief among the Usun and that it would be easy to execute him. She then planned a banquet and, at its conclusion, ordered a soldier to seize a sword and strike Kuan Wang. However, the blade fell flat. Kuan Wang, wounded, mounted a horse and quickly escaped.

His son Sichenshou gathered soldiers and besieged Wei He-i, Ren Chang, and the princess in the city of Chigucheng for several months. Du Hu Zheng Ji dispatched troops from the vassal territories to rescue them. Sichenshou then lifted the siege and withdrew.

The Han court sent Zhonglang Jiang Zhangzun to bring a physician and medicine to treat Kuan Wang, and awarded him 20 jin (Chinese pounds) of gold and colorful silks. As a result, Wei He-i and Ren Chang were arrested and shackled.

In a cart with cages (xianche), they were transported via Weili to Chang’an, where they were executed. General-in-Chief Secretary Zhang Wen remained behind to investigate the princess’s and envoy’s conspiracy to assassinate Kuan Wang.

The princess did not yield; she bowed her head low and apologized. Zhang Wen grabbed the princess by the head and scolded her while holding her like that. The princess filed a formal complaint against Zhang Wen. Upon his return, he was sentenced to death.

The assistant envoy Ji Du independently provided a physician to tend to Kuan Wang.

Kuan Wang, accompanied by more than 10 horsemen, escorted him. When Ji Du returned, he was accused of knowing Kuan Wang deserved death but not acting when the opportunity arose.

He was demoted and sent to the department for raising silkworms. The son of Fei Wang—Wen Guimi—and his Xiongnu wife, Wujutu, upon Kuan Wang’s injury, became frightened and fled with all the linhou (commanders) to the northern mountains. [Wujutu] spread word that troops from her maternal kin of the Xiongnu had arrived.

When the people returned to her, [Wujutu] attacked and killed Kuan Wang and declared herself the new Gunmi. The Han court dispatched Po Qiang Jiangjun (General Breaking the Spears) Xin Wuxian.

Commanding an army of 15,000 troops, [Chang Hui] arrived in Dunhuang and sent an envoy to inspect the route markers in order to travel through to Biti Houjing (i.e., Biti’s rear well), intending to transport grain via connected canals and accumulate it in granaries placed every 10 li, to supply the forces for the punitive campaign.

Previously, there was a woman named Feng Liao, who had served the Chu princess. She was well-versed in history and script, and experienced in political affairs. Once, with an imperial bunchuk (standard) from the Han court, she had been dispatched by the princess to distribute gifts to sedentary domains (cheng-guo). All the states respected and trusted her, calling her Feng Furen (“Lady Feng”).

She was the wife of the Usun Right Great General. She and Wujutu were close.

Du Hu Zheng Ji sent Lady Feng to tell Wujutu that the Chinese army had just set out and he would inevitably be destroyed — it would be better to submit.

Wujutu, frightened, said: “I wish to receive a minor title." Emperor Xuan Di summoned Lady Feng and personally questioned her about the situation. He then dispatched his adjutant, Ye Zhe Du Ci Ji Min Gan Yanshou, as an assistant to accompany Lady Feng.

Lady Feng rode in a brocade carriage, holding the bunchuk. Wujutu was ordered to present himself before Zhang Luo Hou (Chang Hui) in the city of Chigu. Yuan Guimi was installed as Great Gunmi; Wujutu as Lesser Gunmi. Both were granted seals with tassels.

Po Qiang Jiangjun (General Who Breaks Spears), without crossing the Great Wall, returned.

Later, when Wujutu failed to return all the linhou (commanders) and their people, the Han court again sent Zhang Luo Hou (Chang Hui) at the head of three xiao (detachments).

They stationed troops in Chigu.

The Usun people and their territory were thus divided. The Great Gunmi received over 60,000 households; the Lesser Gunmi over 40,000 households. However, the people’s loyalty leaned toward the Lesser Gunmi.

Yuan Guimi and Chimi both died of illness. The princess submitted a memorial to the Han court, stating that she was old and longed for her homeland, and wished to return so her bones could be buried in Chinese soil.

The Son of Heaven took pity and granted her request. The princess, along with three Usun children (both male and female), arrived in the capital. This was the 3rd year of the Ganlu era (51 BCE). At this time, she was already 70 years old.

The Emperor granted her land, a house, male and female servants (literally: slaves), and a generous stipend. Her court appearances followed the ceremonial status of a princess.

Two years later, she passed away. Her three grandsons were left to guard her tomb. Yuan Guimi’s son, Xinmi, succeeded him as the Great Gunmi Ruo. Lady Feng submitted a memorial requesting to go with the embassy to Usun to support Xinmi.

The Han court approved. One hundred soldiers were sent to escort her. Du Hu Han Xuan reported that Usun’s Dashi, Dalu, and Dajian deserved golden seals with purple tassels to honor and assist the Great Gunmi. The Han court agreed. Later, Du Hu Han Xuan again reported that Xinmi was timid and weak-willed and should be removed. In his place, he recommended the Great Gunmi’s uncle, the Left Dajian. The Han court refused.

Eventually, Duan Huizong became Du Hu. He summoned back the rebels, bringing peace and order. Xinmi died, and his son Cilimi succeeded him. The Lesser Gunmi Wujutu also died.

He was succeeded by his son Fuli, who was then killed by his younger brother Zhili (also transcribed as Zhini).

The Han court sent an envoy to install Anzhi, the son of Fuli, as the Lesser Gunmi.

Zhili fled and sought refuge in Kangju. The Han court redeployed an already stationed garrison to Gumo, waiting for an opportune moment to strike.

Anzhi sent the noble Gumoni and three others to deceive the fugitives; pursuing Zhili, they stabbed and killed him. Du Hu Lian Bao rewarded Gumoni and the others with a golden figurine and 20 jin of gold, along with 300 bolts of silk fabric.

Later, Anzhi was killed by the very people who had previously submitted to him.

The Han court appointed his younger brother, Mozhenjiang, as his successor. At that time, the Great Gunmi Cilimi held firm control, and all the linhou (feudal lords or commanders) submitted to him out of fear.

He issued a proclamation forbidding the population from grazing horses and livestock on certain pastures.The state of Usun experienced great peace and order, comparable to the time of Wen Gunmi.

Lesser Gunmi Mozhenjiang, fearing he would be absorbed by the Great Gunmi, forced the noble (guiren) Wuzhilin to feign submission and then assassinate Cilimi. The Han court wished to punish him with military force, but was not yet in a position to do so. Instead, it dispatched Zhonglangjiang Duan Huizong, providing him with gold and silver to devise a strategy in cooperation with the duhu (Protector-General).

Cilimi’s paternal uncle, the grandson of the Han princess, named Yizhimi, was installed as the new Great Gunmi. The Han court refused to return the Lesser Gunmi’s son, who was serving at the Han capital. After a long time had passed, linhou Nanxi of the Great Gunmi faction killed Mozhenjiang. The son of Mozhenjiang’s elder brother Anzhi, named Anliumi, was then made the new Lesser Gunmi.

The Han court was angered that Mozhenjiang had not been personally captured and executed by its own hand. It again sent Duan Huizong to immediately execute Mozhenjiang’s heir, Panqiu. Upon his return, Duan Huizong was rewarded with the title Marquis of Guannei (Guannei Hou). This took place in the 2nd year of the Yuanyan reign (11 BCE).

Because linhou Nanxi killed Mozhenjiang—although not on direct orders from the Han court, it aligned with the need to punish bandits—Duan Huizong recommended him for a reward, granting him the title Jianshou Duyu (Commander Guardian of the Capital).

He also issued formal censure of the Dashi and Dajian (high military officials) for their role in the assassination of Cilimi, stripping them of their gold seals with purple tassels and replacing them with bronze seals with black tassels.

Mozhenjiang’s younger brother, Bihuan Zhi, who had originally conspired to assassinate the Great Gunmi, gathered over 80,000 people, fled north, and submitted to Kangju.

He hoped, with troops borrowed from Kangju, to consolidate power and subjugate both Gunmi factions. Both Gunmi, fearing him, personally appealed to the duhu for help.

In the 2nd year of the Yuan Shou reign (1 BCE) of Emperor Ai, the Great Gunmi Yizhimi and the Shanyu [of the Xiongnu] appeared at the Han court simultaneously. The Han court regarded this as a great honor.

During the Yuan Shou years (1–5 CE), Bihuan Zhi, seeking favor, killed Wuzhilin. The Han court awarded him the title Guiyi Hou (Marquis of Submission and Righteousness).

Both Gunmis were weak, and Bihuan Zhi oppressed them. The Duhu (Protector General) Sun Jian launched a surprise attack and killed him.

Ever since two Gunmis were installed separately in Usun, the Han court endured much grief and worry, and had not known a single peaceful year. In the Duhuan Jingsing Ji it says: “From Anxi, 1,000 li to the northwest lies the Bodalin Range.”

South of the range lies the northern border of the Great Tang (i.e., Chinese territory).

North of the range lies the southern border of the Tujue (Turgesh). From the southwest to the Congling (Pamirs) is over 2,000 li.

As for the waters: those flowing south of the range pass through the Central Kingdom (China) and enter the Eastern Sea.Those flowing north cross into the territory of the Hu (Xiongnu) and flow into the Northern Sea (Beihai, i.e., Lake Baikal).

They continue flowing for several more days to the north and reach the Snowy Sea.

This sea lies in the mountains, where snow falls continually in spring and summer—hence the name “Snowy Sea.” Between the mountains and sea lies a narrow road, flanked by water on both sides, and filled with depressions and chasms thousands of ren (1 ren ≈ 8 feet) deep.

If one were to fall, there would be no way of knowing where they’d land.

He Qiu-tao’s note: “This is the Ice Ridge north of Aksu and south of Ili.” North of Bodalin, traveling over 1,000 li, you reach the Suyie River. He Qiu-tao notes: “The Tang Shu (Book of Tang) says: East of the river’s source lies the Hot Sea. Although the region is cold, the sea does not freeze, hence it is called the Hot Sea (Issyk-Kul).”

He Qiu-tao adds: “The Tang-era Suyie River (or Siyie River) was west of the Ili River.

Today, the largest stream west of Ili forms Lake Temurtu Nor—this is the Hot Sea.

The river feeding the lake is the Chacha’erhan Helai Bulake (‘Bulak’ is Mongolian for ‘spring’).”

This river splits and flows northwest, becoming the Chu River, and after a journey of over 1,000 li, it enters Heshibo. Thus, the Suyie River refers to the Chu River.

It is said the lake is cold but never freezes, and so it is called the Hot Sea.

In a Tang poem titled “Cen Qin at the Hot Sea”, it is written: “I heard the Hu children in Yinshan say: ‘West of the mountain peak, the waters of the Hot Sea boil like a cauldron.’

Above it, birds dare not fly. In its waters, the carp are long and plump.”

Because of these stories, the name “Hot Sea” stuck, and among the Chinese, the false belief that its waters boiled became widespread. There is also a city named Suyiecheng.

In the 7th year of the Tianbao reign (748), the Beiting Jiedushi (military governor) Wang Zhengjian attacked the city walls, destroyed the settlement, and leveled the site where Princess Jiaohé had once lived. He built the Dayunsi Temple, which still exists.

That river in the west borders the state of Shiguo and stretches over 1,000 li in length. He Qiu-tao’s note: “The state of Shi was located on the Lüesha River, in Dushizhecheng.

This was the northern frontier of Dayuan (Ferghana) during the Han period.”

In the Yuzheng Bian it is stated: “Lüesha is Lusha, which may be an alternative name for Olosi (Russians). The name ‘Lusha’ suggests that Olosi originated on the western frontier of Kasake (Kazakh/Kazakhstan).”In the region of this river, there are the Yixing generations, and the Yixing Turks (Tujue). He Qiu-tao clarifies: “The characters for ‘Yixing’ should be written as ‘Heixing’ (literally, ‘Black Surnames’).”

The Tangshu (Book of Tang) states: “After the Zhide era (756–758 CE), the Turgesh (Tujue) fell into decline. The Yellow and Black Surnames each appointed their own kagans.

As they attacked each other, China became entangled in their affairs and had no time to properly govern the region.

During the Qianyuan era (758–780 CE), the Heixing (Black-Surname) Kagan Ado Peilo was still able to send envoys to the [Chinese] court. Each confederation had several tens of thousands of infantry and cavalry. Cities and fortresses were scattered, and they lived in daily fear of violence.

These agricultural peoples all wore armor and helmets, capturing one another to enslave as nubi (servants or slaves). Note by He Qiu-tao: “This is the region now known as Tashikhan.

Tashikhan borders the right wing of the Kazakh (kasake) tribes to the northeast, the Bulute (Buruts—Kyrgyz) to the east, and Namugan to the southeast. It lies 1,300 li from Kashgar.

This is the region where the borders of Dayuan and Kangju met during the Han dynasty.

During the Tang dynasty, it was the land of the state of Shi. Raids and banditry were frequent, and even today, the situation remains the same.”

In the upper reaches of the western part of that river there is a city called Dalosi.

Note by He Qiu-tao: “I correct and align this with the understanding that ‘Dalosi’ is a phonetic corruption of Olosi (Russians). The Usun migrated here from the Congling (Pamir) mountains, and later moved further west. Hence, the name of the city still retains its ancient form.”

The fortress of the people of the Shi state was the site of General Gao Xianzhi’s military encampment in the 10th year of the Tianbao reign (751 CE). From there, he marched to the Western Sea. Note by He Qiu-tao: “The Western Sea here refers to the Inner Sea.”

From the 3rd to the 9th lunar months, the sky is without clouds or rain. Fields are irrigated with snowmelt. The soil is suitable for barley, wheat, rice, and peas. People drink grape wine, fermented rice wine (mi jiu), and sour milk (kumis).”

In the Liaoshi (History of Liao), in the chronicle of Emperor Taizong, in the 1st year of the Huitong reign (938 CE), in the 8th lunar month, under the cyclical sign chengji, it is recorded:

The Tuguhun, Usun, and Mohe all came with tribute.

Note by He Qiu-tao: “Wang Xi in Xuwenxiantongkao states: ‘The Usun once offered tribute during the time of Liao Taizu.’ However, according to records, this occurred during Taizong’s reign. Wang Xi’s statement is incorrect.”

According to the Binweichizhi, out of 50 known states under Liao rule, nine were Usun.

Note by He Qiu-tao: “After the Liaoshi, the name ‘Usun’ no longer appears. In historians’ records, all references are now to Olosi, Valosi, and other changed names.

No one knew anymore that these were the Usun.”

Earlier, from the Tongdian encyclopedia, it was mentioned that from the time two Gunmi were separately appointed to the Usun, no further records of them appear until the Later Wei dynasty. Here is the translated passage from that history: From the Weishu (“History of the Yuan Wei Dynasty,” also known as the Later Wei), Vol. 102, p. 9b: “The capital of the Usun state is the city of Chigu (Issyk-Kul);

it lies northwest of Guici and is 10,800 li from Dai (the capital of Northern Wei).

This state was repeatedly attacked by the Rouran (Joujan), and the people migrated westward to the Congling mountains.

They have no cities or suburbs, following their herds in search of water and grass.

In the 3rd year of the Taiyan reign (437 CE), they sent envoys Duanyuan and others to China.

Thereafter, the state regularly dispatched tribute missions to the Chinese court.”

Source:

N. V. Kyuner — Chinese Records on the Peoples of Southern Siberia, Central Asia, and the Far East, Chapter II: The Usun

Reproduced from: Chinese Records on the Peoples of Southern Siberia, Central Asia, and the Far East.

Moscow: Publishing House of Oriental Literature, 1961.

© Text — I. V. Kyuner, 1961

© Web edition — Thietmar, 2006

© OCR — Ingvar, 2006

© Design — A. Voytekhovich, 2001

© IVL, 1961

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