Photo: A modern reconstruction of the armor of an ancient Kyrgyz warrior from the 9th century, Kyrgyz State Historical Museum.
The following excerpts from Chinese and Persian chronicles, along with insights from distinguished scholars, highlight the pivotal role of the ancient Kyrgyzes—first mentioned in the 2nd century BCE by the Chinese grand historian Sima Qian—in shaping the Scytho-Hunnic cultural horizon and laying the foundations for subsequent Turkic traditions.
These sources also provide compelling evidence of ancient dynastic connections between the Scytho-Hunnic world and Chinese dynasties.
Of particular significance is the Xin Tang Shu (New Book of Tang), a Chinese dynastic history of the Tang dynasty, which provides invaluable evidence of the unique sedentary civilization of the Siberian Kyrgyzes. This civilization boasted a highly developed economy, effective governance and law systems, international diplomatic and trade ties with major powers, a sophisticated military complex, metallurgy, agriculture, and even a thriving art industry.
Prelude by Christopher Beckwith
“In the late 8th and early 7th centuries BCE, Scythian warriors conquered and unified most of the vast Eurasian continent, creating an innovative empire that would give birth to the age of philosophy and the Classical age across the ancient world—in the West, the Near East, India, and China. Mobile horse herders who lived with their cats in wheeled felt tents, the Scythians made stunning contributions to world civilization—from capital cities and strikingly elegant dress to political organization and the world-changing ideas of Buddha, Zoroaster, and Laotzu—Scythians all.
At its height, the Scythian Empire stretched west from Mongolia and ancient northeast China to northwest Iran and the Danube River, and in Central Asia reached as far south as the Arabian Sea. The Scythians also ruled Media and Chao, crucial frontier states of ancient Iran and China.
By ruling over and marrying the local peoples, the Scythians created new cultures that were creole Scythian in their speech, dress, weaponry, and feudal socio-political structure. As they spread their language, ideas, and culture across the ancient world, the Scythians laid the foundations for the very first Persian, Indian, and Chinese empires” - Distinguished Professor, Christophe Beckwith, “Scythians”, Princeton Press
The New History of Tang Dynasty " Xin Tang Shu" - "Khagas is an ancient state of Gyan-Gun. It lies west of Hami (modern-day Kumul), north of Harashar (modern-day Yanqi), near the White Mountains (likely the Tianshan range). Some call this state Guyvu and Gyegu.
Its inhabitants intermingled with the Dinlins (Southern Siberian Indo-European tribes, Tagar culture). In 1124, the domain of Khagas once marked the western boundaries of the Xiongnu.
The Xiongnu elevated the Chinese general Li Ling, who had surrendered to them, to the rank of Western Zhuki Prince, while another Chinese general, Wei Lü, was made ruler over the Dinlins.
Later, Zhizhi Shanyu, after conquering Gyan-Gun, established his residence there, 7,000 li (approximately 3,500 kilometers) west of the Eastern Shanyu’s horde and 5,000 li (about 2,500 kilometers) north of Cheshe (likely near modern Turpan). This is why the rulers of this land were later erroneously called Khagas, Gyegu, and Gyegyesy.
The population reached several hundred thousand, with an army of 80,000 troops. The distance southeast to the Uighur horde was 3,000 li (around 1,500 kilometers). By 1127, their lands extended south to the Tanman Mountains (a historical mountain range in Central Asia). The terrain was swampy in summer, with heavy snow in winter.
The inhabitants were generally tall, with red hair, ruddy faces, and blue eyes. Black hair was considered a bad sign, and those with brown eyes were believed to be descendants of Li Ling. There were fewer men than women.
Men wore earrings. They are proud and resilient. The bravest among them tattoo their hands, while women, upon marriage, tattoo their necks.
The climate is extremely cold; even large rivers freeze halfway through. They grow millet, barley, wheat, and Himalayan barley. Flour is ground using hand mills. Crops are sown in the third moon and harvested in the ninth moon. Wine is made by fermenting grain porridge. There are no fruit trees or vegetable gardens. Horses are sturdy and large, and the best ones are considered those that fight fiercely.
They also keep camels and cows, but cattle and sheep are more common. Wealthy farmers own herds of several thousand animals. Among the wild animals are tarpans, roe deer, moose, and black-tailed goats. Black-tailed goats resemble musk deer but have a large black tail.
Among fish, there is one species about seven feet long, smooth and boneless, with its mouth located below its nose. Among birds, there are wild geese and ducks, magpies, and hawks. Among trees, there are pines, birches, elms, willows, and firs. The fir trees are so tall that an arrow shot from a bow cannot reach their tops. However, birches are the most abundant.
There are deposits of gold, iron, and tin. (The following part is omitted in the original translation but is present in the Chinese text: “With every rainfall, iron is usually obtained and is called jia-sha.
Extremely sharp weapons are made from it and are regularly exported to the Tujue [Ashina-Turks ]
In war, they use bows, arrows, and banners. Cavalry soldiers protect their arms and legs with small wooden shields and wear round shields on their shoulders, which can defend against the points of arrows and sabers.
The ruler is called Azho; hence, he is also addressed as Azho (Chinese denotion of Aré). He has a standard raised. Others are addressed by their clan names. Sable and lynx furs are used for luxurious clothing. In winter, Azho wears a sable hat, and in summer, he wears a conical hat with a golden rim and a curved base.
The army is recruited from all clans. Tribute is paid in sable and squirrel pelts. Officials are divided into six ranks: ministers, high commanders, administrators, secretaries, leaders, and dagans.
There are seven ministers, three high commanders, and ten administrators, all of whom oversee the military. There are fifteen secretaries. Leaders and dagans do not hold formal ranks.
They live on meat and mare’s milk. Only Azho consumes bread wine.
They have a flute, a tambourine, and two unknown musical instruments.
For spectacles, they have trained camels and lions, equestrian acrobatics, and tightrope walking.
Sacrifices to spirits are performed in the open fields. There is no fixed time for sacrifices. Shamans are called gan (or kam).
In winter, they live in houses covered with tree bark. Their script and language are identical to those of the Uighurs (Huihu).
Their laws (Tore) are very strict. A person who causes disorder before battle, fails a diplomatic mission, gives unwise advice to the ruler, or commits theft is sentenced to beheading. If a thief has a father, the thief’s head is hung around his father’s neck, and the father must carry it until his death.
Further eastward lies a sea. (The original translation inaccurately described this; it should read: “All rivers flow northeast, passing Khagas, merge in the north, and enter the sea (Lake Khovsgol).”) The travelers reached Muma (a tribe of ski-using Turks), where three Turkic clans—Dubo, Milige, and Echzhi—nomadize.
Their princes are called Gyegin (Tegin). They live in houses covered with birch bark and have many excellent horses.
It is customary for them to ride on the ice using wooden horses. Skis are tied to their feet, and they lean on poles under their arms. With each push, they glide forward about a hundred steps very quickly. At night, they engage in theft and robbery, and during the day, they hide. The Khagases capture them and use them for labor.
Khagas was a strong state; in terms of territory, it equaled the Turkic (Tujue) domains.
The Turkic royal house gave their daughters in marriage to the elders of Khagas.
The ruler of Khygas had three ministers: Gyasi Bey, Gyui-shabo Bey, and Ami Bey. They managed all state affairs.
The Khygas had no contact with the Middle Kingdom. In the twenty-second year of the Zhenguan reign (648), upon learning that the Tiele tribes had submitted to the Tang Dynasty, the Khygas sent an envoy with local goods.
The elder Sili-fa Shibokuy Achzhan personally traveled to the Court. Emperor Taizong, hosting him at a banquet, said to his officials: “In the past, on the Wei Bridge, the heads of three Tujue men who boasted of their many merits were cut off. Now, it seems that Sili-fa at this table has lost his composure.” An intoxicated Sili-fa expressed a desire to wield the Hu-ban (a ceremonial banner or implement).
During the reign of Emperor Gaozong (650–683), the Khygas sent envoys to the Court twice. In the Jinglong era (706–711), they presented local products. Emperor Zhongzong summoned the envoy and said: (ATTENTION!):
“Your ruling house and mine share a common ancestry [the Tang dynasty traced its origins to a steppe Kyrgyz clan - “Dinlins mixed with Gyan Gun”], and I distinguish it from the other vassals.” During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong (713–755), there were four missions delivering local goods.
Emperor Wuzong (from Wusun?), who ascended the throne in 841, was greatly pleased by the arrival of an envoy bringing tribute from such a distant land. He ranked the envoy above the representative from the Kingdom of Bohai (in Manchuria, 712–926).
Wuzong ordered the official Zhao Fang to travel to the Khygas state with a staff of honor to convey the Court’s favor. He also instructed the ministers and members of the Honglu-si (Bureau of Protocol) to meet the envoy and, through interpreters, compile a description of the mountains, rivers, and customs of the Khygas state.
As the Khygas had opened communication with the Middle Kingdom, it was suggested that a portrait of their ruler be painted for posterity.
The Honglu-si was instructed to find a painter. It was further decreed that Azho (Are), being of the same lineage as the ruling Tang dynasty, should be included in the imperial genealogy.
At that time, Ugye (Uyghur) Khan, with the remnants of his people, sought refuge at the Black Cart. Azho, taking advantage of the autumn abundance of horses, planned to capture the khan and requested military assistance from the Chinese Court. The emperor sent the official Liu Meng to inspect the border.
Four corps in the northwestern corner of China had been weakened by prolonged struggles with Tibet, and eighteen prefectures had been depleted by the passage of nomadic troops. [From the words “the emperor sent” onward, this is a literal translation of the Chinese text: the emperor ordered troops to be provided.]
During this period, Li Hao was appointed as border inspector. The Court, noting that the four Helong garrisons and eighteen prefectures were inundated with eastern and northern foreigners, believed that the decline of the Huihu (Uyghurs) and internal strife in
Tibet presented a fortunate opportunity.
Therefore, Wuzong decided to exploit their weakened state and sent an envoy to the Khygas with a decree granting their ruler the title Zongying Xiongnu Chengming Khan” - The New History of Tang Dynasty " Xin Tang Shu". Translated by Y. Bichurin
Huns
Y.A. Zuev - "One of the peoples whose origin and 'Turkicization' is directly linked to the westward movement of the Huns is the ancient Kyrgyz. This view was proposed at one time by A.N. Bernshtam: 'Based on the study of materials from graves of the Oglakhty complex type, the following can be established for the Minusinsk Basin (for the group of so-called Tashtyk Culture burials):
1) The graves, judging by the fabrics identical to those from Noin-Ula, dated to the first centuries A.D., belong to the period of Hunnic dominance in this area, and possibly also to the Xianbei, for whom the Minusinsk Basin, which in antiquity was called the country of Giangun (Kyrgyz), with a population of Dingling origin, was their northern border. The intermingling of Central Asian tribes with the Dinglings gave rise to the first Kyrgyz ethnic association.
2) The tribes of the country of Giangun were the northern part of the Hunnic confederation and were engaged in agriculture and pastoral livestock breeding, which was likely the main form of production. Through the Huns, the Dinglings traded with China, from which they received fabrics, mirrors, and other goods in exchange for hunting, livestock, and fishing products.
The Dinglings had fairly developed industries: ceramics, metalworking, and others.'" In the paragraph about the ancient Kyrgyz, A.N. Bernshtam writes: "On the Yenisei, where the Europoid-type Dingling had long lived, a new group of tribes appeared as a result of the mixing of the Dingling with the Huns and Xianbei, known in Chinese sources as Ge-gun or Jian-gun" (ibid.; it should be Ge-kun, Jian-kun).
Some indirect data from written sources suggest that the ancient Kyrgyz were Turkic-speaking long before the Huns' (Chinese: Xiongnu) westward campaigns in the mid-1st century B.C. Since the earliest Chinese accounts of Turkic-speaking tribes refer to the Huns, as well as their descendants, the Xiongnu (Huns), and the Kyr-Kun (Kyrgyz) (Jian-kun), the author of this article believes that analyzing the terms Xiongnu and Jian-kun could shed some light on the question of the Kyrgyz's origin.
In Chinese-Tabgatch documents from the 3rd-5th centuries A.D., there are frequent mentions of tribes such as Tuguhun, Tuyuhun, Kezhuhun, etc., all sharing a distinctive final part of their names, typically represented by the same character hun, with its ancient pronunciation ghun.
Indeed, in Chinese sources from the 5th-10th centuries, we find numerous descriptions of the tribes hun — ghun and kun-u, with its ancient reading kün-ŋ — kün, whose names are quite comparable both with the hun from Chinese-Tabgatch documents and with the kün of the Orkhon texts.
The folk etymology of these and related tribes traces their origin to a common ancestor, the Xiongnu — ghun, known in phonetic sources as ghun — gunna.
The form hun first appears in Chinese sources from the 7th-5th centuries B.C. to designate the Turkic-speaking inhabitants of Mongolia. According to common opinion, it corresponds to the later widespread (3rd century B.C.) ethnonym Xiongnu-*ghun*.
Some data from Chinese chronicles support the identification of the Kyrkün with the Huns, shedding light not only on this equivalence but also on the broader Hunnic question. This includes a 3rd-century A.D. chronicle, Wei Lue, preserved in the annotations to the Sanguozhi, which has yet to be fully considered by researchers.
In this work, the existence of two groups of Kyrkuns is noted. One of them (Ge-kun) is listed among the countries located north of the land of the Huns (Xiongnu!), that is, north of Ordos. In the list, it is placed between the Dingling-Dili to the east and the Xinli-Sir to the west.
This localization of the Kyrkuns coincides with the data from the Qian Hanshu and Tang Huiyao, which identified the Kyrkuns as being located on the upper Yenisei. A more interesting report states: "The land of Jian-kun is located to the northwest of Kangju. It has a fighting force of 30,000 men. They migrate, following the grass; there are many wolves; they have good horses."
In historical literature, the view that the Wusuns and ancient Kyrgyz were of Europoid racial type — as opposed to the Mongoloid racial type of the Xiongnu-Huns — has long been established. Therefore, the spread of Mongoloid traits into the Yenisei Basin and Central Asia is often associated with the penetration of the Xiongnu-Huns and their "Turkicization" of the local population in these regions.
However, data from written sources and archaeological excavations seriously question the Mongoloid nature of the Xiongnu-Huns themselves. In this regard, it is worth recalling a chronicle's account: "[The Chinese emperor] Shi Min [4th century A.D.] issued a decree to execute every single Hun in the state, and during this execution, many Chinese with high noses were killed" (N.Y. Bichurin — Fr. Iakinf, Statistical Description of the Chinese Empire, vol. II, pp. 74-75).
The same conclusion is supported by findings from Chinese archaeologists during excavations in Xi'an. A figurine of a Hun discovered in one of the Tang-era tombs vividly shows Europoid features in his racial type."- Y. A. Zuev - the term "Kyr-Kun." On the question of the ethnic origins of the Kyrgyz according to Chinese sources
Joo-Yup Lee and Shuntu Kuang - “The linguistic affiliation of the Xiongnu may remain open to speculation even though some of the Xiongnu remnants later may have taken part in the formation and development of various Turkic nomadic confederations.
Concerning the origin of the Xiongnu, the Shiji by Sima Qian (司馬遷, d. 86 bc) relates that they were descended from Chun Wei (淳維) (Shiji 110.2879), a legendary figure from the ancient Xia (夏) Dynasty, thus attributing a Xia origin to the Xiongnu.
Such an explanation is of no scientific value in determining the origin of the Xiongnu. Yet it does suggest that the physiognomy of the Xiongnu was not too different from that of Sima Qian’s own Han (漢) Chinese population, who also considered themselves descendants of the Xia.
However, the Jie (羯), ‘a separate branch of the Xiongnu (匈奴別部)’, who founded the Later Zhao Dynasty (319–351 ad), appear to have possessed West Eurasian physiognomy, that is, ‘deep-set eyes’, ‘high nose bridges’ and ‘heavy facial hair’.
The Jinshu relates that when the Later Zhao Dynasty was overthrown, the Han Chinese rebel leader Ran Min massacred about 200,000 Jie, or those with ‘high nose bridges’ and ‘heavy beard (高鼻多須)’ (Jinshu 107.2792). Moreover, the Jinshu records the following conversation between a Jie notable and a Han Chinese official:
Sun Zhen, the chamberlain (詹事) of the crown prince, asked the minister (侍中) Cui Yue, ‘I suffer from eye diseases. What is the remedy for it?’ Yue, who had always been informal towards Zhen, teased him saying, ‘if [you] urinate in the middle [of the eye], it will be cured’. ‘How can you urinate in the eye?’
Zhen asked. ‘Your eyes are dented. You can urinate in the middle’, Yue said. Zhen harboured hatred and reported this to [Crown Prince] [Shi] Xuan (石宣). Xuan was the most ‘barbarian (hu 胡)’-looking among the princes. His eyes were deep. Hearing this, he became very angry. He killed Yue and his son.” - “A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and Y-DNA Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples by renowned Canadian scholars Joo-Yup Lee and Shuntu Kuang from the University of Toronto
Ashina - Turks
Peter Golden - “Tujue derived from the Suo (Saka) state, which was located north of the Xiongnu: The chief of the tribe was Abangbu, who had seventeen (Beishi: seventy) brothers. One of them was called Yizhi Nishidu, who was born of a she-wolf.
Abangbu and his brothers were stupid and slow-witted (愚癡 yu chi) and thus their state was, in the end, attacked and destroyed (by others). However, (Yizhi) Nishidu was touched by a spirit {had supernatural powers} and because of that he could summon forth wind and rain. He married two women. One was the daughter of the Summer-God and the other the daughter of the Winter-God.
One of them bore four sons. One son changed himself into a white swan. Another son founded a state between the Afu and Jian Rivers. The state was called Qigu (Kyrgyz). The third son ruled on the Chuzhe River. The fourth brother lived on Jiansi Chuzheshi mountain.
Suo 索 OC: sâk LH: sak MC: sâk (Schuessler, Minimal: 72 [2-33a]); EMC, LMC: sak (Pulleyblank, Lexicon: 298); sak, sak, sag (Coblin, Compendium: 383[0881]).
Harmatta, ‘A türkök eredetmondája’: 391, identified Suo with the ethnonym Saka and noted the connection with Han-era Sai 塞 OC: sək(h) LH: sək, səC (Schuessler, Minimal: 111 [5-28a]) but considered the terms representations of two different Saka groupings.
Beckwith, Empires: 405, n. 53, also argues that Suo renders Saka and cites Menander, History: 116/117: ‘the Turks, who had formerly been called the Sacae’ (ὅτι των Τούρκων τῶν Σακῶν καλούμενων) as evidence for the Saka connection.
契骨 EMC: khejh kwət/ khit kwət LMC: khjiaj ̀ kut; khit kut, (Pulleyblank, Lexicon: 248 111); MC khejH kwot (Kroll, Dictionary: 140) = Qïrqïr (Qïrqïz> Mod. Turk.Kyrgyz). Sinor, ‘Legendary Origin’: 228–29, cites the Youyang zazu that the Qïrğïz ‘do not belong to the race of the wolf’. Rather, Qïrğïz origin tales relate that they stemmed from the mating of a spirit and a cow and lived in a cave north of the Kögmän Mountains (see further); see also Ögel, Türk Mitolojisi, vol. 1: 21–22.
In the Orxon inscriptions, the Kyrgyz are noted as having a Qağan (BQ, E, 20 N, 26-28, KT, E, 25, N, 13; Berta, Szavaimat: 155, 161, 164–65, 185). Eberhard, Kultur und Siedlung: 46, also reports that they lived mixed with the 丁靈 Dingling: LH teŋ leŋ< têŋ-rêŋ (Schuessler, Minimal: 137 [9-11a]) >狄歷 Dili (EMC: dejk-lejk)/特勒 Tele (EMC: dək lək)/勑勒 Chile (EMC: trhik lək)/直勒 Zhile (EMC: drik-lək) >鐵勒 Tiele (EMC: thet-lək) = tägräg.
Ashina 阿史那 EMC*a şi’ na’, LMC aʂŗ ́na’ (Pulleyblank, Lexicon: 23, 283, 221) < Khotan Saka âşşeina-âššena ‘blue’ (Bailey, Dictionary of Khotan Saka: 26–27) = Turk. kök, ‘blue’ as argued by Kljaštornyj, ‘The Royal Clan’: 445–48. Atwood, ‘Some Early’: 68–78, connects Ashina with Tokh. Arši ‘holy man’ (cf. Sanskrit rşi, ONW: a-şə-na, see Coblin, Compendium: 124–25 [0016], 240–41 [0382], 121 [0005].
Beckwith, ‘The Pronunciation’: 39–46; Tokh.A: *ārśilāś ‘noble kings’> Old Türk. aršilaš, ‘an epithet or title’, which the Chinese ‘misunderstood’ as a ‘surname’ or ‘clan-name’ (equated by Beckwith with ’Aρσίλας the ‘eldest’ or ‘senior ruler of the Turks’ mentioned by Menander, History: 172/173, 276, n. 222.)” -The Ethnogonic Tales of the Turks by Peter B. Golden,
Professor Emeritus of History, Turkish and Middle Eastern Studies at Rutgers University
“The nomadic people who spread the Turkic language and the name Türk beyond the Mongolian steppes were the Kök Türks (Tujue 突厥 in Chinese) led by the Ashina clan.
Importantly, Chinese histories do not describe them as descending from the Dingling or as belonging to the Tiele confederation. The Zhoushu (c. 630s ad), for instance, describes them as ‘a separate tribe of the Xiongnu (匈奴之別種)’ (Zhoushu 50.907) or ascribes their origin to the Suo state (suo guo 索國) located to the north of the Xiongnu (Zhoushu 50.908); Suo 索- Sak, Saka according to Schuessler, Pulleyblank, Beckwith).
The Suishu recounts that the Kök Türks are descended from ‘the mixed barbarians (za hu 雜胡) of Pingliang (平涼)’ (Suishu 84.1863). Interestingly, the Zhoushu also relates that the Ashina clan was related to the Kyrgyz (Qigu 契骨) (Zhoushu 50.908), who are described in the Xin Tangshu as possessing ‘red hair’ and ‘blue eyes’ (Xin Tangshu 217b.6147).
It should be noted that the seventh-century Tang historian Yan Shigu (顏師古), who added a commentary to the Hanshu (c. 80s ad), describes the Wusun (烏孫) as follows:
The Wusun have the weirdest appearance among all the Rong (戎) of the Western Region (西域). Today’s Hu (胡) people, being blue-eyed and red-bearded, and having the appearance of macaques, were originally their progeny.
The Kyrgyz are distinguished from the Uighurs and other Tiele tribes in Chinese histories. The Xin Tangshu, which provides detailed information on the Kyrgyz and the Tiele tribes, does not include the former among the latter (Xin Tangshu 217b.6139–6145).
In addition, while the Xin Tangshu states that ‘their language and script were identical to those of the Uighurs (其文字言語，與回鶻正同)’ (Xin Tangshu 217b.6148), it also notes the peculiar physical phenotype of the Kyrgyz.
The Xin Tangshu relates: ‘The people are all tall and big and have red hair, white faces, and green eyes (人皆長大，赤髮、皙面、綠瞳)’ (Xin Tangshu, 217b.6147).25 According to the Xin Tangshu, their neighbouring tribe named Boma (駁馬) or Bila (弊剌) resembled the Kyrgyz, although their language was different (Xin Tangshu 217b.6146).
This may imply that the Kyrgyz were originally a non-Turkic people who became Turkicized during the Kök Türk period at least partly through inter-tribal marriages. The Xin Tangshu relates that ‘the Kök Türks sent women as wives for the [Kyrgyz] chiefs (突厥以女妻其酋豪)’ (Xin Tangshu, 217b.6149).
In the case of Are (阿熱), the Kyrgyz ruler who destroyed the Uighur Khaganate, his wife was a Qarluq woman, while his mother was a Türgesh (Xin Tangshu 217b.6149). In addition, the Xin Tangshu relates that the Kyrgyz ‘intermixed with the Dingling (其種雜丁零)’ (Xin Tangshu 217b.6146–47).
At any rate, the (red-haired) Kyrgyz ‘found dark hair ominous (以黑髮為不祥)’ and ‘regarded those with black eyes as descending from [Li] Ling (李陵)’, a Chinese general who had defected to the Xiongnu.
The high frequency of R1a1 among the modern-day Kyrgyz (68%) and Altaians (50%) may thus prove that they are descended from the Yenisei Kyrgyz. In addition, this may explain the reason why medieval Chinese histories depict the Kyrgyz as possessing West Eurasian physiognomy.
The Y-chromosomes of the Kök Türks have not been studied. After the collapse of the Second Türk Khaganate in 745 ce, the Kök Türks became dispersed and it is difficult to identify their modern descendants.
If they were indeed descended from the Eastern Scythians aka Saka (Suo) or related to the Kyrgyz, as the Zhoushu states (Zhoushu 50.908), the Ashina (royal Türkic dynasty, possibly related to the Turko-Jewish Khazar Khaganate, according to Peter B. Golden of Rutgers University) may have belonged to the R1a1 lineage.” - “A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and Y-DNA Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples by renowned Canadian scholars Joo-Yup Lee and Shuntu Kuang from the University of Toronto
According to Chinese historian Xue Zongzheng, “the original Ashina tribe members had physical features that were quite different from those of East Asian people. However, over time, members of the Ashina tribe intermarried with Chinese nobility, which shifted their physical appearance to a more East Asian one.”
Turkish historian Emel Esin noted that "the members of the Kök-Türk dynasty, and particularly Köl Tigin, had frankly Mongoloid features", probably as a result of repeated marriages.
She also wrote that members of the Ashina tribe sought to marry Chinese nobles, "perhaps in the hope of finding an occasion to claim rulership over China, or because the high birth of the mother warranted seniority". Esin notes that the later depiction of an Ashina prince, the Bust of Kul Tigin, has an East Asian appearance.
"The Chinese sources of the Kök-Türk period describe the turcophone Kirgiz with green eyes and red hair.
They must have been in majority Europeoids although intermarriages with the Chinese had begun long ago. The Kök-Türk kagan Mu-kan was also depicted with blue eyes and an elongated ruddy face.
Probably as a result of the repeated marriages, the members of the Kök-Türk dynasty (pl. XLVII/a), and particularly Köl Tigin, had frankly Mongoloid features. Perhaps in the hope of finding an occasion to claim rulership over China, or because the high birth of the mother warranted seniority, the Inner Asian monarchs sought alliances165 with dynasties reigning in China." - Esin, Emel (1980). A History of Pre-Islamic and Early-Islamic Turkish Culture. Istanbul: Ünal Matbaasi. p. 116.
Kyrgyz and Kök-Turks
Lev Gumilyov - “Despite similarities in language and script, the Kyrgyz were distinct from both the Turks and the Uighurs in certain characteristics. They occupied a metaphorical third peak of an equilateral triangle, representing unity through tension—a harmonious dynamism of continuous struggle driving collective development.” - Lev Gumilev - The Kyrgyz Empire (Khaganate). Excerpt from the book “The Ancient Turks”
Gardizi - “The reason for the unification of the Kyrgyz under the leadership of their chief was as follows. He descended from the Saqlabs (Saqaliba) and was one of their noblemen. While living in the land of the Slavs, a messenger arrived from Rum (Byzantium); this man killed the envoy.
The reason for the murder was the belief that the Byzantines were descended from Shem, the son of Noah, while the Slavs were descended from Japheth. Their name is said to be associated with the word sag (dog) because they were allegedly raised on dog’s milk.” - Gardizi. “Zayn al-Akhbar” (“The Ornament of Chronicles”). Translated from Persian by V. V. Bartold
Postlude
The profound observations on the ancient cultural triad of the Usuns, Dinlins, and Kyrgyzes, as highlighted by prominent Oriental scholars Vasily Bartold, Nikolay Aristov, Alexander Bernshtam, and Saul Abramzon.
“The Kyrgyz belong to the ancient peoples of Central Asia. Among the peoples currently living in Central Asia, none seem to have a name that appeared so early in history.” - V. Bartold,
“Kyrgyz tribes were connected in their origins to the oldest tribal unions of the Sakas, Wusuns, Dingling, and Huns." - Saul Mendelevich Abramzon
“The culture of the Minusinsk region's inhabitants was the result of long-term economic development beginning in the middle of the third millennium BC. It was associated with a blond, long-headed population type known to the Chinese as the Dingling.
During the 5th to 3rd centuries BC, the Dingling were temporarily united culturally with the powerful Scythian union. Although they maintained ties with Central Asia during this time, by the first centuries BC, they fell under the direct influence of Central Asian cultures.
Prior to establishing ties with Central Asia, the Dingling had undergone a long history of ethnogenesis, involving various and sometimes geographically distant tribal components.
It is on the foundation of Dingling ethnogenesis that the changes occurred, eventually leading to the crystallization of a new ethnic phenomenon—the Kyrgyz. This new ethnic phenomenon, the Kyrgyz, was a direct result of the preceding Dingling ethnogenesis.
Therefore, the origins of the formation of the Kyrgyz tribes, and consequently the history of the Kyrgyz people, must be traced back to the archaeological evidence of the Afanasyevskaya culture, with a detailed analysis of the Dingling ethnogenesis, upon which ancient Kyrgyz society was founded.” - Alexander Nathanovich Bernshtam”
“According to many sources, the Kyrgyz population of the western Tien Shan, are the descendants of the Wusun Scythians and, in any case, are of the same tribe as the people of the same name who lived on the Yenisei.” - Nikolay Alexandrovich Aristov
“Wusun participated in the ethnogenesis of the Kyrgyz. Therefore, the Yenisei Kyrgyz and the Tianshan Kyrgyz, known from descriptions in sources from the 16th to the 19th centuries, retained characteristics of the Dinlin-Wusun stage, which were also noted by Arabs and Persians in the 10th century, such as fair hair, light eyes, and other Caucasoid features.
The Boma tribes, who were also representatives of the Dinlin layer and lived in the Yenisei basin, belong to this same category of tribes.
Regardless of the resolution of the question regarding the date of the first migration of the Kyrgyz to the Tien Shan, it must be acknowledged that in the early stages of Kyrgyz ethnogenesis, the tribes inhabiting the modern territory of Kyrgyzstan were incorporated into Kyrgyz ethnogenesis—for example, the Wusun and, to some extent, the Kanguy tribes associated with the Wusun. “ - Alexander Nathanovich Bernshtam
Literature:
DNA Science Data:
“Haplogroup R1a1, more specifically, its subclade R1a1a1b2 (defined by mutation Z93), is the genetic marker of the Indo-European pastoralists, who migrated from modern-day Ukraine to modern-day Iran, India, the Kazakh steppes, the Tarim Basin, the Altai Mountains region, the Yenisei River region, and western Mongolia during the Bronze Age.
Naturally, R1a1, more specifically, its subclade R1a1a1b2 (R1a-Z93), occurs at high frequency among the Turkic peoples now residing in the Yenisei River and the Altai Mountains regions in Russia.
Compared to the Tuvinians, the Khakass (whose name was created by the Soviets from Xiajiasi (黠戛斯), a Chinese name for Kyrgyz, since they were regarded as descending from the Kyrgyz have noticeably higher percentages of R1a1 (35.2%) and much lower percentages of haplogroups C (1.1%) and Q (4%). However, N is also the most prevalent haplogroup (50%) of the Khakass (Gubina et al. 2013: 339; Shi et al. 2013)
As for the Altaians, the Altai-Kizhi (southern Altaians) are characterised by a high percentage of R1a1 (50%) and low to moderate percentages of C2 (20%), Q (16.7%) and N (4.2%) (Dulik et al. 2012: 234).
The major differences between the Khakass and the southern Altaians are the lower frequency of haplogroup N (in another study, haplogroup N is found at high frequency (32%) among the Altaians in general: see Gubina et al. 2013: 329, 339) and the higher frequencies of haplogroups C2 and Q among the latter.
The descent of the Kyrgyz (Kyrgyz) of the Tien Shan Mountains region (Kyrgyzstan) from the Yenisei Kyrgyz is debated among historians.
However, among the modern Turkic peoples, the former have the highest percentage of R1a1 (over 60%). Since the West Eurasian physiognomy of the Yenisei Kyrgyz recorded in the Xin Tangshu was in all likelihood a reflection of their Eurasian Indo-European marker R1a1a1b2 (R1a-Z93), one may conjecture that the Tien Shan Kyrgyz received their R1a1 marker from the Yenisei Kyrgyz. That is, the former are descended from the latter.
The other Y-chromosome haplogroups found among the Kyrgyz (Kyrgyz) are C2 (12~20%), O (0~15%) and N (0~4.5%).50 The lack of haplogroup Q among the Qirghiz (Kyrgyz) mostly distinguishes them from the Altaians.
During the Bronze Age and early Iron Age, the Yenisei River region was inhabited by Indo-Europeans. The dna study of 26 ancient human specimens from the Krasnoyarsk area dated from the middle of the second millennium bc to the fourth century ad shows that the Yenisei pastoralists mostly belonged to haplogroup R1a1 (Keyser et al. 2009: 401)
The high frequency of R1a1 among the modern-day Kyrgyz and Altaians may thus prove that they are descended from the Yenisei Kyrgyz. In addition, this may explain the reason why medieval Chinese histories depict the Kyrgyz as possessing West Eurasian physiognomy.
The Y-chromosomes of the Kök Türks have not been studied. After the collapse of the Second Türk Khaganate in 745 ce, the Kök Türks became dispersed and it is difficult to identify their modern descendants.
If they were indeed descended from the Eastern Scythians aka Saka (Suo) or related to the Kyrgyz, as the Zhoushu states (Zhoushu 50.908), the Ashina (royal Türkic dynasty, possibly related to the Turko-Jewish Khazar Khaganate, according to Peter B. Golden of Rutgers University) may have belonged to the R1a1 lineage.” - Joo-Yup Lee and Shuntu Kuang, University of Toronto, Canada
Source: “A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and Y-DNA Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples’
Authors: Joo-Yup Lee and Shuntu Kuang from, the University of Toronto of Canada
“Kyrgyz are an admixed population between the East and the West. Different patterns have been observed in the patrilineal gene pool of the Kyrgyz. Historically, ancient Kyrgyz were considered to be the Yenisei Kyrgyz that may perhaps be concerned with the Tashtyk culture.
Extremely low Y-diversity and the presence of a high-frequency 68.9% Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a1-M17 (a diagnostic Indo-Iranian marker are striking features of Kyrgyz populations in central Asia. It is believed that this lineage is associated with Indo-Europeans who migrated to the Altai region during the Bronze Age and mixed with various Turkic groups.
Among the Asian R1a1a1b2-Z93 lineages, R1a1a1b2a2-Z2125 is quite common in Kyrgyzstan (68%) and Afghan Pashtuns (40%), and less frequent in other Afghan ethnic groups and some Caucasus and Iran populations (10%). Notably, the basal lineage R1a1a1b2-Z93* is commonly distributed in the South Siberian Altai region of Russia.
According to the published ancient DNA data, we found that, in Middle Bronze Age, Haplogroup R1a1a1b2a2a- Z2125 was mainly found in Sintashta culture population from Kamennyi Ambar 5 cemetery, western Siberia, in Fedorovo type of the Andronovo culture or Karasuk culture population from Minusinsk Basin, southern Siberia, and in Andronovo culture populations from Maitan, Ak-Moustafa, Aktogai, Kazakh Mys, Satan, Oy-Dzhaylau III, Karagash 2, Dali, and Zevakinskiy stone fence, Kazakhstan.” (Wen, Shao-qing; Du, Pan-xin; Sun, Chang; Cui, Wei; Xu, Yi-ran; Meng, Hai-liang; Shi, Mei-sen; Zhu, Bo-feng; Li, Hui (March 2022)
Source: "Dual origins of the Northwest Chinese Kyrgyz: the admixture of Bronze age Siberian and Medieval Niru'un Mongolian Y chromosomes", Nature
Authors: Wen, Shao-qing; Du, Pan-xin; Sun, Chang; Cui, Wei; Xu, Yi-ran; Meng, Hai-liang; Shi, Mei-sen; Zhu, Bo-feng; Li, Hui (March 2022)
“The modern-day descendants of the Yenisei Kyrgyz, the Kyrgyz people, have one of the highest frequencies of haplogroup R1a-Z93. This lineage believed to be associated with Indo-Iranians who migrated to the Altai region in the Bronze Age, and is carried by various Türkic groups. The Zhoushu [the book of the Zhou Dynasty] (Linghu Defen 2003, Chapter 50, p. 908) informs us that the Ashina, the royal clan of the Kök Türks, were related to the Kyrgyz.
If so, the Ashina may have belonged to the R1a1 lineage like the modern-day Tienshan Kyrgyz, who are characterised by the high frequency of R1a1 (over 65%). Haplogroup R1a1, more specifically, its sub- clade R1a1a1b2 defined by mutation Z93, was carried by the Indo-European pastoralists, who reached the Kazakh steppes, the Tarim Basin, the Altai Mountains region, the Yenisei River region, and western Mongolia from the Black Sea steppes during the Bronze Age (Semino et al. 2000, p. 1156, Lee, Joo-Yup (2018)
Source: Lee, Joo-Yup (2018). "Some remarks on the Turkicisation of the Mongols in post-Mongol Central Asia and the Kipchak Steppe ''. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 71 (2): 121–124. doi:10.1556/062.2018.71.2.1. ISSN 0001-6446. S2CID 133847698.
Kazakh DNA researcher Zhaxylyk Sabitov states: “Until the 9th century, the Kyrgyz lived along the Yenisei River in the Minusinsk Basin. In the 9th century, the Yenisei Kyrgyz migrated to the Altai and Irtysh regions.
“From 1326 to 1329, some Altai Kyrgyz moved to Semirechye and the territory of modern Kyrgyzstan.” He also published DNA sample data from the Sintashta culture, which he claims “is related to the Altai and modern Kyrgyz, while the Arban-1 samples from the Karasuk culture are ancestral to modern Kyrgyz. Genetic data from Arzhan complex (8th century BCE) also show parental genes of the Kyrgyz.”
"It is known that the structure of Arzhan has similarities with the Sintashta-Andronovo kurgans (M.P. Gryaznov). It is known that Saka tribes lived in the territory of Kyrgyzstan, and later the Wusun tribe arrived from the east. The high percentage of R1a1 among the Kyrgyz appeared through three routes: from the Saka tribes, from the Wusun Sakas, and from the Dingling tribes. There is also a theory about the migration of part of the Yenisei Kyrgyz to the territory of modern Kyrgyzstan.” - Zhaxylyk Sabitov
Source: “Historical-Genetic Approach in the Study of the Ethnogenesis and Material Culture of the Ancient Kyrgyz” - International Journal of Experimental Education
“The land of Modern Kyrgyzstan, populated at the turn of the eras by the Saka and Wusun tribes, was overrun by the Yenisei Kyrgyzes (Khakasses) in the 8th c. AD.
Since Kyrgyzstan is a natural mountain fortress of the Tian Shan mountains, it is an island similar to the Lithuanian Tatars, with high genetic inertia and limited influences. Essentially, all four are Scythians, the Saka Scythians, Wusun Scythians, Yenisei Kyrgyz Scythians, and the Lithuanian Tatar Scythians.”
Source: “The Lithuanian Tatars: DNA Ancestry Traced To The Eurasian Steppes”, Academy of DNA-Genealogy, Tsukuba, Japan, Igor Rozhanski
"Samples from the burials of the Andronovo, Tagar, and Tashtyk cultures were identified using Y-STR analysis, which allows for the comparison of these samples with each other and with samples from representatives of different populations, both ancient and modern.
The Andronovo haplotypes S10 and S16 have the following structure:
ANDRON S10, S16:
13-25-16-11-11-14-10-14-11-18-15-14-11-16-20-12-23
The greatest number of matches is observed with the Tian Shan Kyrgyz and the Southern Altaians. Complete matches of haplotypes in populations that are geographically close and share a common history are possible only in cases of genetic relationship; random matches are unlikely.
Thus, the Southern Altaians and the Tien Shan Kyrgyz are likely descendants of close relatives of the Yenisei Andronovites, most likely the descendants of the Altai Andronovites. It is well established by linguists and ethnographers that there is close linguistic and ethnic kinship between the Kyrgyz and the Southern Altaians (Baskakov, 1966: 15-16).
These peoples share the same names for their clan divisions (Mundus, Telos-Doolos, Kipchak, Naiman, Merkit, etc.). Kyrgyz legends refer to Altai as the ancestral home of their people. Several historians believe that the Kyrgyz and Southern Altaians once formed a single community and that the migration of the Kyrgyz from Altai to Tien Shan occurred relatively recently (Abramzon, 1959: 34; Abdumanapov, 2007: 95, 114).
Source: Volkov V.G., Kharkov V.N., Stepanov V.A. Andronovo and Tagar cultures in light of genetic data."
Zhaxylyk Sabitov - "Arzhan burial mound—the oldest known Scythian burial site, located in the Republic of Tuva, Russia—are particularly noteworthy. According to Kazakh DNA researcher Zhaxylyk Sabitov, the kurgan is the resting place of ancestors of nearly half of the Kyrgyz people, who are carriers of the haplogroup R1a-Z93.
The burial sites in the Minusinsk Basin, from which the Kyrgyz Khaganate later emerged, include a man closely related to 45% of modern Kyrgyz. This lineage belongs to the R1a Kyrgyz subclade Z2125.
The royal burials in the Arzhan Valley and Arzhan-2 (near Tuva, close to the Minusinsk Basin) also contain ancestors of the Kyrgyz. Tribes such as Adygine, Tagay, Saruu, Sarybagysh, Bugu, and Solto have close relatives buried there.
The analysis of BAM files was conducted by Vladimir Tagankin. Below, we outline the clearly established facts:
1. Sample RISE386: Originating from the Bulanovo-Sintashta culture settlement (Southern Ural), this sample is dated to 2298–2045 BCE. It belongs to the subclade Z2121/S3410+, Z2124+, YP1460+. YP1460 is identified as a marker of the Kyrgyz branch. This sample is genetically related to approximately 40% of modern Kyrgyz. This group also includes a significant portion of Southern Altaians, a small number of Kazakhs, and Polish-Lithuanian Tatars.
2. Sample RISE495:Found in the Arban 1 settlement of the Karasuk culture (Khakassia), this sample belongs to the subclade R-S23592 (Z2124+, Z2125+, Z2122-, Z2123-) and is identified as positive for YP349. This subclade is ancestral to the Kyrgyz branch. Close genetic relatives of this sample include approximately 40% of Kyrgyz, particularly those from specific subdivisions of On Kanat and Sol Kanat.
3. 2017 Study on Ancient DNA:A 2017 publication presented genetic data on ancient DNA (Y-chromosome and autosomal markers).
Among the samples, S441 was identified from the Arzhan settlement (Tuva), dating to the 7th–6th centuries BCE. This sample exhibited two positive mutations: YP1456+ and S23592+, both of which are ancestral mutations for the Kyrgyz branch.
Scythians of Arzhan-2: The remains from Arzhan-2 exhibit a blend of Caucasoid and Mongoloid morphological traits. This reflects the historical intermingling of populations in the region.”
Comments